Influence of Islam on Indian music

The influence of Islam on Indian music marks one of the most transformative periods in the history of the subcontinent’s cultural development. Beginning with the arrival of Muslim rulers in northern India in the early medieval period, this interaction brought new ideas, instruments, performance traditions, and aesthetic sensibilities that merged with existing indigenous and Vedic musical practices. The result was the formation of a distinct Indo-Islamic musical culture, out of which evolved the Hindustani classical music tradition, while the South preserved a parallel but distinct Carnatic system.

Historical Background

Islamic influence on Indian music began with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (13th century) and reached its culmination under the Mughal Empire (16th–18th centuries). Muslim rulers, particularly from Central Asia and Persia, brought with them their own rich traditions of music—maqamat (melodic modes), instruments, and courtly performance practices.
This interaction was not one of replacement but of synthesis. Indian music, deeply rooted in the concepts of Nāda (sound), Raga (melody), and Tala (rhythm), absorbed elements from Persian and Arabic systems, resulting in a new aesthetic that combined devotional spirituality with refined courtly expression.

Early Contacts: Delhi Sultanate Period

During the rule of the Delhi Sultans (1206–1526 CE), India became a centre of cultural exchange between the Middle East and South Asia. Sufi mystics and court musicians played crucial roles in introducing new musical concepts and instruments.

• Amir Khusrau (1253–1325 CE), the legendary poet, scholar, and musician at the court of Alauddin Khalji, was one of the earliest figures to pioneer this synthesis. He is credited with popularising several innovations:
  • The creation or refinement of musical forms such as Qawwali, Khayal, and Tarana.
  • The introduction of Persian musical scales and rhythmic patterns into Indian frameworks.
  • The invention or development of instruments like the sitar (derived from the Persian setar) and the tabla (evolved from earlier drums like pakhawaj and Persian tabl).
  • The blending of Persian and Indian ragas, giving rise to new melodic structures.

Amir Khusrau’s contributions laid the foundation for what would become North Indian classical music, characterised by greater ornamentation, improvisation, and emotional depth.

Sufism and Devotional Music

The Sufi saints were instrumental in shaping the devotional and emotional dimension of Indo-Islamic music. Believing that music could lead to divine union, Sufis used it as a medium for spiritual ecstasy.

• The Qawwali tradition, originating in Sufi shrines (dargahs), combined Persian poetry with Indian melodic and rhythmic patterns.
• Qawwalis were performed as acts of devotion (sama) and sought to induce mystical trance or communion with God.
• Sufi poetry in Persian, Urdu, and Hindavi—using themes of love, longing, and divine intoxication—added a new emotional vocabulary to Indian music.

This Sufi musical heritage continues to thrive in India and Pakistan, with centres like the dargah of Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi still resonating with the spirit of Khusrau’s compositions.

Mughal Period: The Age of Musical Synthesis

The Mughal emperors were great patrons of the arts, and under their rule, Indian music reached new heights of sophistication. The Mughal court became a cosmopolitan space where Persian, Turkic, and Indian traditions intermingled.

• Akbar the Great (r. 1556–1605) played a particularly vital role in shaping the course of Indian music. His court employed legendary musicians, most notably Tansen, who is regarded as one of the greatest composers and vocalists in Indian history.
  • Tansen, originally a Hindu from Gwalior who converted to Islam, synthesised Dhrupad, the ancient temple-based form, with Persian melodic structures.
  • He composed numerous ragas, such as Miyan ki Todi, Miyan ki Malhar, and Darbari Kanada, which remain fundamental to Hindustani music.
  • Akbar’s court chronicler, Abu’l Fazl, described music as a divine art capable of elevating the soul.

Under the Mughals, the Dhrupad style flourished, performed in temples and royal courts alike. Later, it gave rise to Khayal, a more flexible and expressive form that incorporated Persian and Arabic ornamentations.

The Emergence of New Musical Forms

The fusion of Islamic and Indian elements during the Sultanate and Mughal periods gave birth to new musical genres and performance styles:

• Qawwali: A Sufi devotional form that blends Persian lyrics with Indian ragas and rhythmic cycles.
• Khayal: A vocal genre that developed from Dhrupad, featuring improvisation and emotional expression, introduced possibly under Amir Khusrau and refined under later Mughal patronage.
• Tarana: A form using meaningless syllables (like “tanana, derena”) set to rhythmic melody, attributed to Amir Khusrau.
• Thumri and Ghazal: Emerged as semi-classical forms during the later Mughal and Nawabi periods, combining lyrical beauty with emotional subtlety, particularly in courts like Awadh (Lucknow).
• Sitar and Tabla: Developed as signature instruments of Indo-Islamic music, replacing older forms like the veena and pakhawaj in court music.

Influence on Language and Musical Vocabulary

Islamic influence also extended to musical terminology and literature. Many Persian and Arabic terms entered the lexicon of Indian music:

• Naubat (ensemble), raag (from raq), maqam (melodic mode), tal (from taal), sur (note), and tarana (song form).The mingling of Persian and Hindavi languages gave rise to Urdu, which became the preferred medium for poetry and music, especially in ghazals and thumris.

Musical treatises like Ain-i-Akbari and Rag Darpan document this cultural confluence, recording details of ragas, instruments, and performance traditions.

Regional Spread and Court Patronage

The influence of Islam on music was not confined to Delhi alone. Across the subcontinent, regional courts embraced Indo-Islamic musical traditions:

• In Awadh (Lucknow) and Rampur, the ghazal, thumri, and dadra flourished.
• In Hyderabad, Persian and Deccani influences produced distinctive styles of qawwali and classical music.
• In Jaipur, Gwalior, and Patiala, musical gharanas (schools) emerged, preserving stylistic traditions that blended Hindu devotional and Persian courtly elements.

Each regional court contributed to the diversification of Hindustani music while maintaining the spiritual and aesthetic fusion of its origins.

Instruments and Musical Technology

The arrival of Islam introduced new musical instruments and techniques that reshaped Indian performance traditions.

• String Instruments: The sitar and sarod evolved from Persian prototypes like the setar and rabab.
• Percussion Instruments: The tabla, associated with Indo-Islamic courts, replaced the older pakhawaj in many settings.
• Wind Instruments: The shehnai and naubat ensembles played ceremonial music in mosques and palaces.

These instruments expanded the tonal range and rhythmic complexity of Indian music, facilitating new compositional and improvisational possibilities.

Spiritual and Aesthetic Transformation

Islamic mysticism infused Indian music with new spiritual dimensions. The Sufi concept of Ishq-e-Haqiqi (divine love) resonated with the Indian idea of Bhakti (devotional love), creating a shared emotional and philosophical foundation for musical expression.
The fusion of Sufi and Bhakti traditions enriched the emotional depth (rasa) of Indian music, emphasising longing, surrender, and divine union. The merging of these devotional impulses can be seen in the works of Kabir, Mirabai, and Amir Khusrau, whose poetry and songs transcended religious boundaries.

Legacy and Modern Influence

The synthesis of Islamic and Indian musical traditions gave rise to the Hindustani classical music system, which stands distinct from the Carnatic tradition of the South. This system retained the ancient principles of raga and tala but reinterpreted them through Persian and Central Asian aesthetics.
Today, genres like ghazal, qawwali, sufi music, and Hindustani classical all bear the marks of this centuries-long fusion. Prominent artists such as Ustad Amir Khan, Begum Akhtar, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, and Ravi Shankar have continued to explore this shared heritage.