India–Nepal water resources cooperation

India–Nepal water resources cooperation constitutes an important aspect of bilateral relations between the two neighbouring nations, shaped by geography, shared river systems, and long-standing socio-economic linkages. The two countries are connected by numerous transboundary rivers originating in the Himalayan region of Nepal and flowing into the Ganga basin in India. These rivers—such as the Kosi, Gandak, and Mahakali—carry immense potential for irrigation, hydropower generation, flood control, and regional development. Cooperation over water resources therefore holds strategic, developmental, and humanitarian significance.
Given the hydrological interdependence between the two nations, collaboration has evolved through treaties, joint mechanisms, development projects, and institutional frameworks aimed at maximising benefits while minimising disputes. Water has been both a subject of partnership and occasional tension, making a balanced and cooperative approach essential for sustainable management.

Geographical and Hydrological Context

The unique geography of the region forms the basis of water cooperation. Nepal’s mountainous terrain receives significant monsoonal precipitation, feeding major Himalayan rivers that descend rapidly into the plains of northern India. As these rivers are vital for agriculture, drinking water, and electricity, joint planning becomes a necessity.
Key features of this hydrological context include:

• Nepal’s rivers contribute substantially to the Ganga system and support millions of livelihoods in India’s Indo-Gangetic plains.
• The steep gradient within Nepal offers substantial hydropower potential.
• The rivers cause recurring floods and erosion in downstream regions, particularly in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
• Shared river systems require integrated flood forecasting, embankment construction, and transboundary management.

These geographical realities underpin the need for structured bilateral cooperation.

Evolution of Legal and Institutional Frameworks

India and Nepal have established several treaties and institutional arrangements to address water resource management.
Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1950)Although primarily political, this treaty laid a broad foundation for cooperation, including infrastructural development and mutual assistance.
Kosi Agreement (1954, revised 1966)Designed to address recurring floods caused by the Kosi River, the agreement facilitated:

• Construction of the Kosi Barrage at Bhimnagar.
• Flood management measures and embankment systems.
• Irrigation and power development benefits for both countries.

Gandak Agreement (1959, revised 1964)This treaty aimed to harness the Gandak River through:

• Construction of the Gandak Barrage and canals.
• Irrigation benefits for both Nepal and India.
• Joint responsibility for maintenance and water regulation.

Mahakali Treaty (1996)A comprehensive treaty covering the Mahakali (known as the Sharda in India), integrating three projects:

• Sharada Barrage
• Tanakpur Barrage
• Pancheshwar Multipurpose ProjectIt focuses on hydropower generation, irrigation, and flood control through mutual cooperation.

These instruments together reflect decades of collaborative water management efforts.

Major Cooperative Projects

Bilateral collaboration is reflected in several major water resource projects.
Kosi ProjectImplemented for flood control and irrigation, the project includes embankments, a barrage, and associated canals. It has significantly contributed to protecting downstream populations from severe flooding.
Gandak ProjectThis project provides irrigation to extensive agricultural areas in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India, while also benefiting Nepal with irrigation facilities and regulated water distribution.
Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project (PMP)A flagship hydropower project planned on the Mahakali River, the PMP is designed to provide:

• Large-scale hydropower generation
• Extensive irrigation potential
• Flood moderation benefitsIts implementation remains under discussion due to technical, economic, and political considerations.

Integrated Flood Forecasting NetworksBoth countries jointly manage flood forecasting stations, enabling timely warnings for downstream populations, especially during the monsoon season.
These projects demonstrate practical, operational cooperation in shared river management.

Key Areas of Cooperation

India and Nepal cooperate across various domains related to water resources.
Hydropower DevelopmentNepal holds vast hydropower potential estimated at tens of thousands of megawatts. India supports:

• Joint ventures for hydropower projects
• Power trade agreements
• Cross-border transmission infrastructureSuch cooperation enhances energy security for both countries.

Irrigation and AgricultureJoint projects support extensive irrigation systems, benefiting millions of farmers. Assured water supply contributes to food security, agricultural productivity, and rural development.
Flood Control and Disaster ManagementGiven Nepal’s mountainous terrain and India’s vulnerable floodplains, coordinated action is vital. Activities include:

• Joint monitoring of river levels
• Construction and maintenance of embankments
• Regular meetings between technical experts during monsoon seasons
• Sharing hydrological data in real time

Navigation and WaterwaysAlthough limited in scope, discussions on promoting inland water transport between the two countries reflect emerging possibilities for economic integration.
These areas underscore multidimensional cooperation beyond mere water-sharing.

Challenges in Water Resources Cooperation

Despite progress, several challenges persist that affect smooth implementation.

• Perceptions of Uneven Benefits: Public opinion in Nepal sometimes views treaties as favouring India disproportionately, affecting political support.
• Delays in Project Implementation: Large hydropower and multipurpose projects encounter delays due to environmental assessments, financing issues, and administrative procedures.
• Flood-related Controversies: Monsoon flooding periodically leads to concerns about embankment maintenance and water release from upstream systems.
• Political Sensitivities: Water resources are often linked to national identity and sovereignty, making negotiations delicate.
• Technical and Environmental Constraints: Geographical complexity demands comprehensive assessments and sustainable planning.

These challenges highlight the importance of continuous dialogue and trust-building.

Joint Institutions and Mechanisms

To maintain structured cooperation, both countries operate several joint bodies:

• Joint Standing Technical Committee (JSTC)
• Joint Committee on Water Resources (JCWR)
• Joint Expert Group (JEG)
• Joint Project Offices for specific river basins

These platforms facilitate discussions on project implementation, data sharing, technical assessments, and policy coordination.

Contemporary Developments

Recent years have witnessed renewed emphasis on strengthening water-related cooperation. Initiatives include:

• Enhanced power trade arrangements, enabling Nepal to export surplus electricity to India.
• Accelerated efforts to finalise major hydropower and multipurpose projects.
• Upgraded flood-forecasting technologies and increased data-sharing frequency.
• New agreements on cross-border power transmission lines.

These developments reflect mutual interest in leveraging water resources for sustainable development.

Significance of India–Nepal Water Resources Cooperation

Effective cooperation yields several benefits:

• Economic Growth: Hydropower, irrigation, and flood control contribute to national development in both countries.
• Regional Stability: Coordinated water management reduces disaster risks and enhances resilience.
• Energy Security: Cross-border electricity trade fosters energy independence and regional integration.
• Sustainable Development: Joint initiatives align with broader environmental and developmental objectives.
• Strengthened Bilateral Relations: Water cooperation forms a key pillar of India–Nepal friendship and strategic partnership.