Holocene

The Holocene is the present geological epoch of the Quaternary period, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago after the end of the Last Glacial Period. Marking the transition from the Pleistocene ice age to warmer interglacial conditions, the Holocene has coincided with profound transformations in climate, ecosystems, and especially human society. It encompasses the entire span of recorded history, the rise of agriculture and urban civilisations, technological revolutions, and the extensive global impact of human activity on the Earth’s systems.

Definition and Chronology

The International Commission on Stratigraphy defines the start of the Holocene at around 11,700 years before the year 2000 CE, corresponding to 9,700 BCE and calibrated as 11,650 radiocarbon years before present. This moment aligns with the end of major glacial retreat and the beginning of a relatively stable climatic phase. The term “Holocene” derives from the Ancient Greek words hólos (“whole”) and kainós (“new”), indicating an “entirely new” epoch within the Cenozoic Era. First proposed in 1850 by Paul Gervais, the name reflected the belief that the deposits of this period corresponded to the era of human presence.
The epoch is formally divided into three ages, ratified in 2018: the Greenlandian (11,700–8,200 years ago), the Northgrippian (8,200–4,200 years ago), and the Meghalayan (4,200 years ago to the present). Each age is defined by distinct climatic shifts recorded in ice cores, cave deposits, and other stratigraphic markers. The Greenlandian reflects post-glacial warming; the Northgrippian is marked by substantial cooling caused by disrupted ocean circulation; and the Meghalayan began with a prolonged period of severe drought.

Geological Setting and Earth Systems

In geological terms the Holocene is brief, representing only a small fraction of the Quaternary. Plate tectonic movements over 10,000 years amount to less than a kilometre, but postglacial processes have had substantial effects. Ice melt prompted global sea-level rise—over 50 metres when combined across early and later Holocene phases—and many higher-latitude regions experienced significant postglacial rebound as land surfaces lifted after the retreat of massive ice sheets. Evidence of temporary marine incursions appears far inland, including marine fossils in regions such as Vermont and Michigan.
Holocene deposits are found mainly in lakebeds, river floodplains, and cave sediments, while marine deposits are scarce along low-latitude coasts because sea-level rise exceeded tectonic uplift. In northern Europe and North America, ongoing crustal rebound continues to reshape landforms and cause minor seismic activity.

Climate Variability

Although the Holocene is generally more climatically stable than the preceding glacial era, it has experienced marked fluctuations. Marine and terrestrial records reveal shifts associated with periodic radiative forcing and ocean–atmosphere feedbacks. Cycles, often termed Bond events, display periodicities around 2,500, 1,500, and 1,000 years and are closely tied to variations in North Atlantic climate. These patterns suggest substantial though regionally variable environmental changes.
Scientists continue to refine climate chronologies using ice cores from Greenland, peat bog sequences, sea-level indicators, and radiocarbon dating. One system for organising Holocene climatic phases is the Blytt–Sernander sequence, initially based on European peat stratigraphy but found to have broader correlations across Eurasia and North America.
No distinct faunal stages have been defined for the Holocene, largely because major evolutionary turnovers are minimal compared to earlier epochs. However, human technological phases such as the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age are often used to describe cultural developments, though these vary by region.

Human Development and Environmental Influence

The Holocene is marked by unprecedented human expansion and activity. It encompasses the development of agriculture, the growth of cities, written history, and industrialisation. Human societies have increasingly altered the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. These cumulative impacts include large-scale deforestation, species extinctions, and atmospheric changes, contributing to what many researchers describe as the ongoing “Holocene extinction”.
The concept of an Anthropocene—a proposed new epoch beginning in the mid-twentieth century characterised by geologically significant human influence—has been widely discussed. Although a working group of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy voted in 2019 to recognise the Anthropocene in principle, the proposal was not formally accepted. In March 2024 the International Commission on Stratigraphy and the International Union of Geological Sciences confirmed the rejection of the Anthropocene Epoch proposal, citing the extremely shallow and recent stratigraphic signals relative to the requirements for defining a new epoch.

Subdivision and Regional Terminology

The Holocene is sometimes referred to through regional glacial terminology. The final Pleistocene glacial period is known by different names: the Wisconsin glaciation in North America, the Weichselian in Europe, the Devensian in Britain, the Llanquihue in Chile, and the Otiran in New Zealand. Holocene climatic intervals can also be classified into chronozones, including 10–9 ka BP, 9–8 ka BP, 8–5 ka BP, 5–2.5 ka BP, and 2.5 ka BP to the present, based on regional environmental patterns.
The term “Flandrian” has been used historically in British contexts as a synonym for the Holocene but is now considered outdated. The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy recommends using “modern” rather than “recent” when referring to ongoing processes, reserving “Holocene” strictly for the defined geological epoch.

Continuing Significance and Earth System Change

The Holocene represents a period of substantial environmental stability that enabled the development of complex human societies. Yet this epoch is also characterised by rapid expansion of human influence, with consequences for planetary systems. Fossil records, biodiversity patterns, sedimentological data, and climate reconstructions all indicate profound interactions between natural processes and human actions.