Great Spotted Woodpecker

The great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) is a medium-sized member of the woodpecker family, widely distributed across the Palearctic region. It is a familiar and conspicuous woodland bird, recognised by its striking black-and-white plumage and vivid red markings. Highly adaptable in both habitat and diet, the species has successfully colonised a broad geographical range and maintains a large, stable population. As a result, it is currently classified as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
The great spotted woodpecker plays an important ecological role as a predator of wood-boring insects and as a creator of nesting cavities used by many other species. Its biology, behaviour, and evolutionary history make it a key representative of the true woodpeckers.

Taxonomy and classification

Woodpeckers belong to an ancient avian family, the Picidae, which is divided into three subfamilies: the wrynecks, the piculets, and the true woodpeckers (Picinae). Within Picinae, the great spotted woodpecker is a member of the tribe Melanerpini, commonly known as the pied woodpeckers due to their contrasting black-and-white plumage.
The species was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of Systema Naturae, where it was named Picus major. In 1816, the German naturalist Carl Ludwig Koch reassigned it to the genus Dendrocopos. The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek dendron (tree) and kopos (striking), while the species epithet major comes from the Latin maior, meaning “greater”.
Within the genus Dendrocopos, the great spotted woodpecker is closely related to the Syrian woodpecker, Himalayan woodpecker, Sind woodpecker, white-winged woodpecker, and Darjeeling woodpecker. Occasional hybridisation with the Syrian woodpecker has been recorded in areas where their ranges overlap.

Subspecies and evolutionary history

The number of recognised subspecies varies considerably between authorities, ranging from approximately 14 to nearly 30. This variation largely reflects clinal variation, with gradual changes in size, colour, and plumage across the species’ extensive range. Many populations are connected by intermediate forms, complicating taxonomic boundaries.
Mitochondrial DNA studies suggest that several subspecies, including those from the Caspian Sea region, Japan, and parts of China, may warrant recognition as separate species. Despite its distinctive appearance, the Canary Islands subspecies (D. m. canariensis) appears to be closely related to the nominotypical European form (D. m. major).
A fossil chronospecies, Dendrocopos major submajor, lived during the Middle Pleistocene around 250,000 to 300,000 years ago. Found in Europe south of the ice sheets, it differed little from modern great spotted woodpeckers and is considered a probable direct ancestor of contemporary European subspecies.

Physical description

Adult great spotted woodpeckers measure approximately 22–23 cm in length, with a wingspan of about 34–39 cm and a weight typically ranging between 70 and 90 grams. The upperparts are glossy blue-black, contrasted with white patches on the face, neck, and shoulders. A distinctive black cheek stripe extends from the base of the bill towards the nape.
The underparts are largely white, with a bright scarlet patch on the lower belly and undertail coverts. The bill is strong and slate-black, adapted for chiselling wood, while the legs are greenish-grey and the eyes deep red. Adult males can be distinguished from females by a crimson patch on the nape, which females lack.
Juvenile birds are duller in appearance, with brownish upperparts, less sharply defined markings, and a pinkish rather than red vent. The crown of the head is red in juveniles of both sexes, though more extensive in young males.
Subspecies vary in size and coloration. Northern forms tend to be larger, heavier-billed, and whiter below, in accordance with Bergmann’s rule, while southern subspecies are smaller and darker. Some North African forms exhibit distinctive red or dark banding on the breast, making them among the most visually striking variants.

Adaptations and anatomy

Like all woodpeckers, the great spotted woodpecker has evolved specialised anatomical adaptations to withstand the stresses of repeated hammering. These include a reinforced skull, shock-absorbing tissues, and strong neck muscles. The tongue is long and barbed, enabling the extraction of insect larvae from deep within wood. Stiff tail feathers act as a prop, supporting the bird as it climbs tree trunks.

Behaviour and feeding ecology

Great spotted woodpeckers are active and agile birds, frequently seen climbing tree trunks and branches. They chisel into wood to locate food, excavate nest cavities, and produce drumming sounds used in communication and territorial defence.
Their diet is highly varied. During the breeding season, they feed extensively on insects and larvae found beneath bark or within decaying wood. At other times of year, they consume seeds, particularly from pine and spruce cones, which they skilfully wedge into crevices known as “anvils” before extracting the seeds. They may also take eggs and nestlings of smaller birds, making them opportunistic predators.

Breeding and life cycle

Breeding occurs in spring, with pairs excavating nest holes in living or dead trees. The nest cavity is unlined, apart from wood chips produced during excavation. A typical clutch consists of four to six glossy white eggs.
Both parents share incubation duties and feed the chicks once they hatch. The nest is kept clean, with adults removing waste material. After fledging, the young remain dependent on the adults for approximately ten days, with each parent often taking responsibility for feeding part of the brood.

Moult and plumage changes

Adult great spotted woodpeckers undergo a complete moult after the breeding season, lasting around four months. Timing varies with latitude, with northern populations moulting later than southern ones. Juveniles undergo a partial moult, replacing body feathers and some flight feathers as they transition towards adult plumage.

Vocalisations and drumming

The most common call is a sharp “kik”, sometimes repeated rapidly if the bird is alarmed. A softer courtship call may be given during display flights. Drumming, produced by rapid pecking on resonant surfaces such as dead branches, serves as a non-vocal signal for territorial advertisement and pair bonding.
The drumming of the great spotted woodpecker is among the fastest of any woodpecker in its range, typically consisting of bursts lasting about one second at a rate of 10–16 strikes per second.

Distribution and habitat

The species has an extensive range across Eurasia, from Ireland and western Europe to Japan, and from Scandinavia south to North Africa. It inhabits a wide variety of wooded environments, including deciduous, coniferous, and mixed forests, as well as parks, gardens, and orchards. It occurs from sea level to the tree line in mountainous regions.
Most populations are resident year-round, but partial migration may occur in northern regions during years of poor cone production. Juveniles often disperse widely, sometimes travelling hundreds of kilometres. This wandering behaviour has led to occasional vagrancy records in North America and facilitated the natural recolonisation of Ireland in the early twenty-first century, following centuries of absence due to deforestation.