Glossary of Buddhism

Many key Buddhist terms lack direct English equivalents that fully convey the depth, philosophical nuance, and doctrinal range of their original meanings. As Buddhism spread from its Indian origins across Asia and, more recently, into the Western world, its technical vocabulary was transmitted through multiple classical and vernacular languages, including Pali, Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese, Mongolian, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai, Burmese, and Khmer. This process produced a rich multilingual lexicon in which single concepts appear under different names while retaining a shared doctrinal core. The study of these terms is essential for understanding Buddhist philosophy, practice, and historical development across Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana traditions.

Linguistic and doctrinal context

Early Buddhism preserved its teachings primarily in Pali, the canonical language of the Theravada tradition. In contrast, Sanskrit became the dominant scholastic language of Mahayana Buddhism. As Buddhism expanded into Central, East, and Southeast Asia, key terms were translated or transliterated into local languages, often acquiring additional connotations shaped by indigenous cultures. Consequently, many Buddhist concepts are best understood as semantic fields rather than single, fixed definitions.

Abhidhamma and scholastic analysis

The term Abhidhamma (Pali) or Abhidharma (Sanskrit) literally means “higher teaching” or “about the dhamma”. It refers to a systematic and analytical exposition of Buddhist doctrine, focusing on mental processes, material phenomena, and conditional relations. In Theravada Buddhism, the Abhidhamma Pitaka forms the third division of the Pali Canon, while Mahayana traditions developed their own Abhidharma texts and schools. Across cultures, the term appears in Burmese, Thai, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Tibetan, and Mongolian forms, reflecting its central role in Buddhist scholasticism.

Dhamma and dharma

One of the most fundamental Buddhist terms is Dhamma (Pali) or Dharma (Sanskrit), derived from a root meaning “to hold” or “to sustain”. It signifies the Buddha’s teaching, ultimate truth, natural law, and the phenomena that constitute reality. In different traditions, dhamma may refer to doctrinal teachings, moral law, or momentary mental and physical events. Its widespread translation into Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Mongolian underscores its universal importance within Buddhism.

The Three Marks of Existence

Central to Buddhist philosophy are the Three Marks of Existence. These are expressed through closely related terms across languages:

• Anicca (Pali) or Anitya (Sanskrit), meaning impermanence.
• Dukkha, denoting suffering, unsatisfactoriness, or existential unease.
• Anattā (Pali) or Anātman (Sanskrit), meaning non-self or absence of a permanent soul.

These concepts describe the fundamental nature of conditioned existence and are essential to insight meditation practices in all Buddhist traditions.

Dependent origination

The doctrine of Paṭiccasamuppāda (Pali) or Pratītyasamutpāda (Sanskrit) explains the arising of suffering through a chain of interdependent causes and conditions. Often translated as “dependent origination” or “dependent arising”, it emphasises that phenomena arise neither independently nor randomly. This teaching forms the philosophical backbone of Buddhist views on causality, rebirth, and liberation and is widely preserved across Asian Buddhist vocabularies.

Karma and rebirth

The concept of kamma (Pali) or karma (Sanskrit) refers to intentional action and its ethical consequences. Closely linked to this is bhava, meaning becoming or existence, which underlies the cycle of rebirth. The bhavacakra, or Wheel of Becoming, symbolically represents samsaric existence and is particularly prominent in Tibetan Buddhism. Together, these ideas explain moral causation without reliance on a creator deity.

Enlightenment and awakening

The goal of Buddhist practice is bodhi, meaning awakening or enlightenment. From this root arise several central terms:

• Buddha, “the awakened one”.
• Bodhisattva, a being dedicated to attaining enlightenment for the benefit of all beings, especially central to Mahayana Buddhism.
• Bodhicitta, the aspiration towards enlightenment motivated by compassion.

These terms appear in nearly every Buddhist language and highlight the ethical and spiritual ideals of the tradition.

Arahants and Buddhas

In Theravada Buddhism, the ideal practitioner is the arahant, one who has fully eradicated defilements and attained liberation. In Mahayana traditions, while arhats are respected, greater emphasis is placed on the bodhisattva path and the realisation of anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi, the unsurpassed perfect awakening of a Buddha.

Meditation and mental cultivation

Meditative practice is expressed through terms such as jhāna (Pali) or dhyāna (Sanskrit), referring to deep states of meditative absorption. As Buddhism spread eastwards, this term evolved linguistically into Chan (Chinese), Zen (Japanese), Seon (Korean), and Thiền (Vietnamese), giving rise to entire schools centred on meditation.
Another key practice is ānāpānasati, mindfulness of breathing, which remains fundamental in Theravada and modern mindfulness-based traditions.

Compassionate figures and celestial beings

Buddhism developed a rich cosmology populated by enlightened beings and celestial figures. Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, appears under many names, including Guanyin in Chinese traditions and Kannon in Japan. Similarly, celestial Buddhas such as Amitābha, associated with the Pure Land tradition, are revered across East Asia under various linguistic forms, all emphasising compassion and salvific grace.

Monastic life and community

The Buddhist monastic community is structured around terms such as bhikkhu (monk) and bhikkhunī (nun), derived from Pali and Sanskrit roots. These terms are adapted across Asian languages but consistently refer to ordained members who follow the Vinaya, the monastic disciplinary code. Respectful titles such as bhante are used across Theravada cultures to address senior monks.

Ritual, merit, and devotion

Practices of generosity and devotion are expressed through terms like dāna, meaning giving or generosity, and cetiya or stupa, referring to sacred monuments housing relics. Such practices are common across Buddhist societies and reinforce ethical cultivation and communal identity.