Fast Compendium : Indian History

Indian history encompasses one of the world’s oldest and most diverse civilisational narratives, extending from prehistoric cultures to the contemporary republic. Its evolution reflects continuous cultural synthesis, political transformation, economic change, and social development. For learners, a concise yet comprehensive overview offers clarity on major phases, turning points, and contributions that shaped the subcontinent. This compendium outlines essential historical facts spanning ancient, medieval, and modern India, with emphasis on themes frequently highlighted in examinations and academic study.

Prehistoric and Protohistoric Background

Human presence in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the Palaeolithic age, with stone tools and cave shelters found across the region. Key developments include:

• Palaeolithic communities practising hunting and gathering in sites such as Bhimbetka.
• Neolithic settlements emerging in Kashmir, the Ganga valley, and South India, reflecting domestication of plants and animals.
• Chalcolithic cultures developing early agriculture and copper-based tools in regions like Maharashtra and Rajasthan.

The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE) represents South Asia’s first urban culture, noted for:

• Planned cities such as Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, and Lothal.
• Grid-pattern streets, advanced drainage, granaries, seals, weights, and standardised architecture.
• Long-distance trade links with Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf.Its decline remains debated, with theories involving climate shifts, river changes, and economic transformation.

Vedic and Later Vedic Phases

The Vedic Age (c. 1500–600 BCE) marked the rise of Indo-Aryan culture and the composition of the Vedas. The early phase was pastoral, gradually transitioning to agriculture and settled life during the later period.
Key developments:

• Tribal polity led by chiefs (rajan) supported by assemblies such as the sabha and samiti.
• Social stratification evolving into the varna system.
• Iron use (after 1000 BCE) enabling agricultural expansion in the Ganga plains.
• Emergence of kingdoms, rituals, and philosophical ideas that later influenced classical Hindu thought.

Rise of Mahajanapadas and Religious Movements

By the 6th century BCE, sixteen Mahajanapadas, including Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, and Avanti, dominated northern India. This period witnessed significant socio-religious changes:

• Development of urban centres and extensive trade.
• Challenge to Vedic ritualism through heterodox philosophies.
• Emergence of Buddhism under Gautama Buddha and Jainism under Mahavira, both advocating ethical conduct, non-violence, and spiritual liberation.

Magadha, under rulers such as Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, became the leading regional power.

Mauryan Empire

Founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE with the guidance of Chanakya, the Mauryan Empire was the first large territorial state in South Asia.
Key highlights:

• Highly centralised administration with elaborate taxation and state control.
• Ashoka, its most renowned ruler, embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga War and promoted dhamma, moral governance, and international diplomacy.
• Extensive edict system inscribed on rocks and pillars across the subcontinent.

The empire declined after Ashoka, leading to regional fragmentation.

Post-Mauryan Developments and the Gupta Era

Post-Mauryan centuries saw varied political formations:

• Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushans, and Satavahanas influencing art, trade, and state formation.
• Kushana patronage of Gandhara and Mathura schools of art.

The Gupta Empire (c. 4th–6th century CE) is often termed the Golden Age due to achievements in literature, astronomy, mathematics, and art. Contributions include:

• Kalidasa’s literary works such as Abhijnanasakuntalam.
• Aryabhata’s astronomical insights, including the concept of zero and Earth’s rotation.
• Development of classical temple architecture.Political decline followed with the Huna invasions.

Early Medieval Period

Between the 7th and 12th centuries CE, India witnessed:

• Regional kingdoms such as the Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, and Cholas in the South.
• Chola naval expansion, administrative sophistication, and temple construction exemplified by Brihadishvara Temple.
• Rise of feudal structures, agrarian expansion, and regional cultural identities.

In the North, the tripartite struggle among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas shaped political dynamics.

Medieval India: Sultanates and Mughal Rule

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) introduced Persian-influenced administration, architecture, and cultural synthesis.
Major dynasties included:

• Mamluks, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis.
• Expansion of agrarian systems, trade networks, and Indo-Islamic culture.
• Establishment of institutions such as the Iqta system.

Mughal Empire (1526–1707), founded by Babur, became one of the most powerful early modern empires.
Highlights:

• Akbar’s administrative reforms, land revenue system (Zabt), and policy of religious accommodation.
• Architectural achievements: Humayun’s Tomb, Red Fort, Taj Mahal.
• Flourishing literature, miniature painting, and Persian cultural influence.After Aurangzeb, Mughal power waned, leading to regional states such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Nawabs gaining prominence.

Colonial Rule and Resistance Movements

European arrival began with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch, English, and French. The East India Company consolidated power, leading to British political dominance.
Key phases:

• Battle of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764) establishing Company rule.
• Administrative restructuring, revenue systems like Permanent Settlement and Ryotwari, and economic exploitation.
• Cultural and social reform movements led by figures such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Revolt of 1857, marking a major uprising against Company rule.
• Transfer of power from Company to Crown, beginning the British Raj.

National Movement and Independence

The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, spearheaded political mobilisation.
Major developments:

• Moderates and Extremists shaping early political discourse.
• Home Rule Movement, Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India Movement.
• Emergence of leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Sardar Patel.
• Revolutionary movements contributing to anti-colonial struggle.
• Partition and independence on 15 August 1947, leading to the creation of the Republic of India in 1950.

Post-Independence Consolidation

Independent India focused on:

• Integration of princely states under Sardar Patel.
• Adoption of the Constitution in 1950.
• Planned economic development, institution building, and democratic consolidation.
• Social reforms, foreign policy initiatives, and scientific progress.