Fascism

Fascism is an authoritarian, far-right, and ultranationalist political ideology that emerged prominently in early twentieth-century Europe. It is characterised by dictatorial leadership, the subordination of individual rights to the perceived interests of the nation or race, and the use of coercive state power to enforce political, social, and cultural conformity. Although its influence largely declined after the Second World War, the ideology has continued to shape political discourse, academic analysis, and debates surrounding extremism.
Fascist movements sought to create a politically unified national community in which all citizens were expected to serve the aims of the state. This framework promoted a highly centralised autocracy, extensive regimentation of society, and strict control of the economy through state intervention. Fascism also positioned itself in opposition to communism, socialism, liberalism, pluralism, and parliamentary democracy, placing it firmly on the far-right of the traditional left–right spectrum.

Historical Development and Rise of Fascist Movements

The origins of fascism can be traced to the social and political turbulence surrounding the First World War. Many early fascists interpreted the conflict as a transformative event that reshaped the relationship between state, society, and war. The experience of mass mobilisation, technological change, and total warfare expanded the capabilities of the modern state, reinforcing fascist convictions that a strong central authority was essential for national revival.
Italian Fascism, pioneered by Benito Mussolini, developed during the final years of the war. Mussolini founded the Fasci d’Azione Rivoluzionaria in 1915 and later the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in 1919, which became the National Fascist Party in 1921. His regime promoted a vision of national regeneration rooted in discipline, unity, and the revival of imperial grandeur, exemplified by ambitions to restore aspects of the ancient Roman Empire.
German National Socialism, or Nazism, became the most notorious variant of fascism. While sharing many structural similarities with Italian Fascism, it centred more explicitly on concepts of racial hierarchy, purity, and the creation of a master race. The doctrine elevated ethnic nationalism and antisemitism, culminating in policies of systematic persecution, deportations, and genocide during the Second World War.
Fascist movements emerged outside Europe as well, though often with local adaptations. These movements varied significantly, and historians argue that while they share a recognisable ideological core, each embodied specific national circumstances, political cultures, and historical contexts.

Core Characteristics and Ideological Principles

Although scholars differ in their interpretations of fascism, several key elements recur across most definitions:

• Dictatorial Leadership: A single charismatic leader embodying the nation, exercising uncontested authority.
• Centralised Autocracy: Concentration of political power in the state, often through a one-party system.
• Militarism and Violence: A belief in violence—political, imperialist, and military—as a necessary tool for national rejuvenation.
• Ultranationalism: Promotion of national superiority, frequently expressed through myths of past greatness or cultural rebirth.
• Suppression of Opposition: Repression of dissent, elimination of political pluralism, and enforcement of ideological conformity.
• Social Hierarchy: Acceptance of a natural social hierarchy and authoritarian social order.
• State-Directed Economy: Support for a dirigiste economic model aimed at achieving autarky, with strong state intervention in economic planning.

These principles frequently manifested in expansionist foreign policies, romanticised symbolism, and efforts to mobilise society around a unified national ideal.

Symbolism, Etymology, and Cultural Associations

The word fascism derives from the Italian fascio, meaning “bundle”, rooted in the Latin fasces—a bundle of rods surrounding an axe. In ancient Rome, fasces symbolised civic authority and the magistrate’s power, carried by attendants known as lictors. The symbolism conveyed strength through unity: a single rod can be broken easily, but a tightly bound bundle cannot.
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the fasces motif appeared across political movements of varied ideological orientations. French republican imagery, for instance, often depicted Marianne carrying the fasces to represent collective resolve. The symbol also appears in architectural contexts, such as at the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford and the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, suggesting a broader cultural resonance before its association with modern fascism became dominant.

Scholarly Interpretations and Debates

Defining fascism has proven difficult. Historian Ian Kershaw famously likened the task to “trying to nail jelly to the wall”, reflecting the variability of movements labelled fascist and the challenge of distinguishing essential features from local adaptations.
Stanley G. Payne provided one of the most influential analytical frameworks, identifying three components:

1. Fascist negations – opposition to liberalism, socialism, and conservatism.
2. Fascist goals – creation of a nationalist authoritarian state, transformation of social relations, and territorial expansion.
3. Fascist style – aesthetic glorification of youth, masculinity, mass mobilisation, symbolism, and political violence.

Umberto Eco identified fourteen features of what he termed Ur-Fascism, suggesting that fascism is not a rigid system but an ideological constellation. Even a single characteristic, he argued, could allow fascism to form around it.
Roger Griffin presented fascism as a “palingenetic ultranationalism”—a revolutionary movement centred on the myth of national rebirth. He viewed this palingenesis as the essential core of fascism, combined with populist mobilisation and a belief in cultural or moral decadence that necessitates radical renewal.
John Lukacs, by contrast, contended that no unified category of “generic fascism” exists, arguing that regimes such as Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy differed more from each other than they resembled a shared model.
Modern analyses, including those by Jason Stanley and Alexander Reid Ross, highlight how fascist rhetoric persists through narratives of national humiliation, hostility to minority groups, populist mobilisation, and calls for restoration led by an authoritarian figure.

Social Consequences and Impact on the Twentieth Century

Fascist regimes pursued expansive and violent agendas that had devastating consequences for millions. Their suppression of minority groups—including Jews, ethnic and political outgroups, homosexuals, and disabled people—resulted in forced sterilisation, mass deportations, and genocide. During the Second World War, fascist Axis powers pursued imperialist conquests that inflicted widespread destruction across Europe, North Africa, and Asia.
The defeat of fascism in 1945 relegated the ideology to the political margins. Few contemporary parties openly embrace the label, though the term fascist is often used pejoratively in political discourse. Nevertheless, certain movements labelled neo-fascist or post-fascist draw on elements of twentieth-century fascism, prompting renewed scholarly interest in how the ideology adapts to modern conditions.