Eurasian Griffon Vulture

The Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) is a large Old World vulture belonging to the bird of prey family Accipitridae. It is one of the most widespread and best-studied scavenging raptors of Europe, North Africa and large parts of Asia. Commonly known simply as the griffon vulture, it must be distinguished from closely related species such as Rüppell’s vulture (Gyps rueppellii) and the Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis). Owing to its ecological role as an obligate scavenger, the species plays a vital part in nutrient recycling and disease control within natural ecosystems.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The species was originally described as Vultur fulvus and later placed within the genus Gyps. Two principal subspecies are widely recognised:

• Gyps fulvus fulvus (Hablizl, 1783), the nominate form distributed across Europe, North Africa and western Asia.
• Gyps fulvus fulvescens (Hume, 1869), found mainly in the Indian subcontinent.

The Eurasian griffon vulture is closely related to the African white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus), sharing similar morphology and ecological adaptations.

Physical Description

The griffon vulture is a very large raptor, measuring approximately 93–110 cm in length with an impressive wingspan of 230–280 cm. In the nominate subspecies, males generally weigh between 6 and 10 kg, while females are slightly heavier, typically ranging from 7 to 11 kg. Individuals of the Indian subspecies tend to be slightly smaller on average, although extreme body weights have been recorded in captivity.
Newly hatched chicks are naked, a characteristic feature of many Old World vultures. Adults have a pale, whitish head and neck, devoid of feathers, which reduces contamination when feeding on carcasses. A prominent white neck ruff separates the bare head from the buff-coloured body. The wings are broad and powerful, adapted for soaring flight, with dark flight feathers contrasting strongly against the paler wing coverts. The bill is yellowish and strongly hooked, well suited for tearing flesh.

Distribution and Habitat

The Eurasian griffon vulture occupies a broad geographic range extending from the Iberian Peninsula across southern Europe, the Middle East and Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent. It inhabits predominantly mountainous and hilly regions, favouring open landscapes that facilitate soaring and the detection of carrion.
In Europe, stronghold populations occur in Spain and France, which together supported approximately 25,000 birds by 2008, following a recovery from severe declines in the late twentieth century. Spain hosts the largest population in Europe, notably within protected areas such as the Hoces del Río Duratón Natural Park. In Portugal, several hundred breeding pairs are concentrated mainly in the Douro International Natural Park.
In Italy, the species survived historically only on Sardinia, but reintroduction programmes have led to occasional sightings and gradual recolonisation of mainland regions. Stable colonies also exist in Croatia, particularly on the islands of Cres and Krk, where nesting often occurs at low elevations, resulting in frequent human contact. Smaller or reintroduced populations are present in France, Greece, Serbia, Armenia and Israel, with Greece hosting nearly 1,000 individuals, most of them on Crete.
Further east, the species breeds along the northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus in Russia and extends into parts of Central Asia and India. Occasional vagrant individuals have been recorded in northern Europe, including Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany and Ireland.

Behaviour and Ecology

Like all vultures of the genus Gyps, the Eurasian griffon vulture is an obligate scavenger. It feeds almost exclusively on the carcasses of medium to large mammals, locating food by soaring over open terrain and observing the behaviour of other scavengers. Feeding often takes place in large groups, where vocalisations such as grunts and hisses are used to assert dominance at carcasses.
The species is largely resident, although non-breeding individuals and juveniles may wander widely in search of food. Griffon vultures are social birds and frequently form loose colonies, particularly at breeding sites.

Breeding Biology

Breeding occurs on cliffs, crags and steep rocky slopes, usually in mountainous regions. Nests are built on ledges, in caves or potholes, and consist of sticks lined with softer material. The species lays a single egg per breeding attempt.
Reproductive success is influenced by colony density and nest-site quality. Sheltered locations such as caves and protected ledges produce higher fledging success than exposed sites, which are typically occupied only when population density increases. Both parents participate in incubation and chick rearing.

Physiology and Flight Adaptations

The Eurasian griffon vulture is a model species for the study of soaring flight and thermoregulation. Due to its large size, flapping flight is energetically expensive. Instead, the species relies heavily on thermal updraughts, allowing it to soar for extended periods with minimal energy expenditure. During soaring flight, griffon vultures expend only around 1.4 times their basal metabolic rate, significantly less than most birds during powered flight.
Thermoregulation is facilitated by the bird’s bare head and neck, which can be exposed or retracted to regulate heat loss. Postural changes can increase bare skin exposure from approximately 7% to over 30%, greatly enhancing convective heat dissipation. Griffon vultures also tolerate elevated body temperatures during high ambient heat, reducing water loss and energy expenditure.

Intraspecific Competition and Social Structure

Studies indicate no significant age-related differences in feeding rates among griffon vultures, although older adults often exhibit more aggressive and dominant behaviour at carcasses. Males and females show no consistent differences in competitive interactions. Reintroduced individuals display similar dominance hierarchies and feeding behaviour to wild-bred birds, suggesting strong innate behavioural traits.

Longevity

The species is long-lived, with individuals in captivity recorded to live over 40 years. Longevity in the wild is lower but still considerable, reflecting the low adult mortality typical of large scavenging raptors.

Threats and Conservation Issues

Historically, Eurasian griffon vulture populations declined sharply due to persecution, habitat loss and poisoning. The primary contemporary threat remains the ingestion of poisoned baits intended for predators, which can cause rapid and widespread mortality.
Additional threats include reduced food availability, particularly following regulations aimed at controlling bovine spongiform encephalopathy, which restricted the disposal of livestock carcasses in the countryside. This led to food shortages and altered foraging behaviour in some regions.