Émile Durkheim

Émile Durkheim was a French sociologist widely regarded as one of the principal founders of modern sociology. He played a decisive role in establishing sociology as an independent academic discipline, distinct from philosophy and psychology. Durkheim sought to understand how societies maintain order, cohesion, and stability in the face of modernisation and social change. His work laid the foundations for sociological theory, research methodology, and the systematic study of social institutions.

Background and Early Life

Émile Durkheim was born in 1858 in Épinal, France, into a Jewish family with a strong tradition of religious scholarship. Although initially trained for a rabbinical career, he later rejected theology in favour of secular education. Durkheim studied at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, where he was influenced by philosophy, history, and emerging social sciences. His academic training instilled in him a commitment to rigorous reasoning and scientific methods, which later shaped his approach to sociology.

Establishment of Sociology as a Discipline

Durkheim was instrumental in institutionalising sociology within the French academic system. He became the first professor of sociology in France, initially at the University of Bordeaux, where he introduced sociology into the university curriculum. Durkheim argued that society should be studied scientifically, using systematic observation and comparative methods. He defined sociology as the study of social facts, emphasising that social phenomena exist independently of individuals and exert a coercive influence over them.

The Concept of Social Facts

A central concept in Durkheim’s sociology is that of social facts, which he described as ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that are external to the individual and endowed with the power of coercion. Examples include laws, moral norms, customs, religious beliefs, and social institutions. Durkheim insisted that social facts must be treated as “things”, meaning they should be studied objectively rather than explained solely through individual psychology. This methodological principle distinguished sociology from other disciplines and provided a scientific basis for sociological analysis.

Division of Labour and Social Solidarity

In his early major work, The Division of Labour in Society (1893), Durkheim examined how social cohesion is maintained in different types of societies. He identified two main forms of social solidarity:

• Mechanical solidarity, characteristic of traditional societies, based on similarity, shared beliefs, and collective conscience.
• Organic solidarity, typical of modern industrial societies, based on interdependence arising from specialised roles and functions.

Durkheim argued that the increasing division of labour in modern societies does not necessarily weaken social cohesion but transforms it, creating new forms of social integration.

Suicide and Sociological Method

Durkheim’s study Suicide (1897) is considered a landmark in sociological research. In this work, he demonstrated that suicide, often regarded as a purely individual or psychological act, has social causes that can be systematically analysed. By comparing suicide rates across different social groups and societies, Durkheim identified patterns linked to levels of social integration and regulation. He classified suicide into types such as egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic, each associated with specific social conditions. This study exemplified his belief that social facts can be measured and explained scientifically.

Religion and Collective Consciousness

Durkheim’s later work focused on religion as a fundamental social institution. In The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912), he analysed religious practices among Australian Aboriginal societies to explore the origins and functions of religion. Durkheim argued that religion is essentially a social phenomenon, serving to reinforce collective consciousness and social cohesion. According to him, the distinction between the sacred and the profane reflects society’s need to symbolise and reaffirm shared values and norms.

Education and Moral Order

Durkheim also made significant contributions to the sociology of education. He viewed education as a key mechanism through which societies transmit values, norms, and collective beliefs to new generations. Schools, in his view, play a crucial role in promoting social integration and moral discipline, particularly in modern societies where traditional forms of authority have weakened. His ideas influenced educational theory and policy, especially in relation to civic education and social cohesion.