Deforestation

Deforestation refers to the removal and long-term loss of forests or stands of trees, typically through land conversion to non-forest uses such as agriculture, livestock grazing, infrastructure, or urban development. It represents one of the most significant human impacts on the global environment, influencing biodiversity, climate, soil stability and the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. Although forest ecosystems still cover roughly one-third of Earth’s land surface, global forest area has declined substantially since the expansion of agriculture, and losses continue at considerable rates—particularly in tropical regions.

Definition and scope

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines deforestation as the conversion of forest to other land uses, regardless of whether the change is human-induced. This definition distinguishes deforestation from net forest area change, the latter representing the balance of total forest losses and total forest gains over a given period. A region may therefore experience localised deforestation even if its overall forest area remains stable or increases due to reforestation or afforestation initiatives.

Drivers of deforestation

Agriculture is consistently identified as the dominant cause of global deforestation. In 2018 more than four-fifths of total forest loss was attributed to agricultural expansion. Key agricultural drivers include:

• Commercial crop plantations, such as palm oil, soy, coffee and rubber
• Subsistence farming in many low-income regions
• Livestock grazing, particularly in South America
• Timber extraction and logging, both legal and illegal
• Urbanisation and mining, contributing to permanent land-use change
• Climate-related disturbances, notably wildfires exacerbated by warming and drought

These pressures vary considerably across continents, with tropical and subtropical regions experiencing the most rapid forest conversion.

Global patterns and recent statistics

Estimates indicate that 15–18 million hectares of forest are destroyed each year, equivalent to losing an area roughly the size of Bangladesh. Tree cover loss averages about 2,400 trees cut down every minute. Since 1990 the world has lost approximately 178 million hectares of forest, an area comparable to Libya. Primary forests—mature, undisturbed rainforests—have declined by more than 80 million hectares in the same period.
Recent assessments highlight troubling trends:

• In 2019, nearly a third of all tree cover loss—about 3.8 million hectares—occurred within humid tropical primary forests.
• Between 2015–2020, global deforestation rates averaged 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares annually in the 1990s.
• In 2023, Global Forest Watch reported a 9% decline in tropical primary forest loss compared to the previous year; however, global deforestation still rose by 3.2% due to increases outside the tropics and wildfire-driven losses in Canada.

Trade and consumption patterns also play a major role. Studies show that demand in high-income countries drives deforestation abroad: for example, consumption habits in G7 nations are estimated to cause an average loss of 39 trees per person per year through imported commodities such as coffee, cocoa and palm oil.

Regional dynamics

Deforestation is most severe in tropical rainforests—ecosystems that host more than half of all terrestrial plant and animal species. Since the mid-twentieth century, tropical rainforest cover has declined from roughly 14 per cent of global land area to about 6 per cent. Substantial forest removal occurred between 1960 and 1990, during which around 20 per cent of all tropical rainforests were destroyed. Projections from the early twenty-first century warned that, without effective intervention, only 10 per cent of undisturbed tropical rainforest may remain by 2030, with another 10 per cent classified as degraded.
However, regional trajectories differ. Reductions in deforestation in parts of Brazil and Colombia in recent years have been offset by increases in Southeast Asia, Central Africa and other hotspots of land-use change.

Environmental and social impacts

Deforestation has far-reaching ecological and societal consequences:

• Biodiversity loss: Habitat destruction eliminates species and undermines ecosystem resilience. The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report notes that over 420 million hectares of forest were lost globally between 1990 and 2020, with more than 90 per cent of that loss occurring in the tropics, contributing to severe threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services.
• Carbon emissions and climate change: Forests act as major carbon sinks. Their removal reduces global carbon sequestration capacity and releases stored carbon into the atmosphere, intensifying climate change.
• Soil degradation: Forest clearance increases susceptibility to erosion, nutrient loss and desertification.
• Hydrological disruption: Loss of forest cover alters local and regional rainfall patterns, reduces soil moisture retention and affects watershed stability.
• Impacts on Indigenous peoples: Many forest communities face displacement, loss of cultural heritage and reduced access to traditional resources.
• Increased vulnerability to extreme events: Forest degradation reduces resilience to droughts, floods, landslides and other climate-related hazards.

Forests also play a critical role in supporting agriculture by stabilising microclimates and water cycles. Disruption of these systems introduces additional risks to food security.

Rates of change and long-term trends

Satellite-based analyses offer insights into the changing pace of deforestation. Some early studies suggested that rates in the humid tropics were lower than previously estimated, although more recent research confirms that forest loss remains substantial. While global net forest loss has slowed over recent decades, primary forest loss continues at levels incompatible with biodiversity conservation and climate goals.
The fragmentation of remaining forests, expansion of road networks, and intensification of agricultural frontiers continue to place pressure on ecosystems. Furthermore, disturbances such as pests, invasive species, drought and extreme weather events affect more than 100 million hectares of forest worldwide.

Significance for the future

Deforestation remains a central challenge in global environmental governance. Efforts to mitigate its impacts include sustainable land management, enforcement against illegal logging, economic incentives for conservation, supply-chain reforms and restoration initiatives. International frameworks such as REDD+ encourage countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, while consumer-driven movements push for more transparent and sustainable commodity sourcing.