Cotton

Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fibre that develops within a protective boll surrounding the seeds of plants belonging to the genus Gossypium, part of the mallow family Malvaceae. Composed primarily of cellulose, with small proportions of waxes, fats, pectins, and water, the fibre naturally aids in seed dispersal. Cotton plants thrive in tropical and subtropical regions and are native to areas across the Americas, Africa, Egypt, and the Indian subcontinent. With the highest diversity of wild species found in Mexico, followed by Australia and Africa, cotton has become one of the world’s most important agricultural and textile commodities. Its domestication occurred independently in both the Old and New Worlds, and today cotton is the most widely used natural fibre in the global clothing and textile industry.

Characteristics and Cultivation

Cotton is valued for its softness, breathability and durability. These qualities make it an ideal raw material for spinning into yarn or thread, which is then woven or knitted into fabric. Cotton textiles date back to prehistoric times, with archaeological evidence showing fabric fragments in the Indus Valley civilisation from the fifth millennium BC and in ancient Peru around 4200 BC.
Modern production is extensive, with global output estimated at around 25 million tonnes annually, equivalent to roughly 110 million bales. This accounts for a significant share of the world’s arable land usage. India is currently the world’s largest producer, while the United States has historically been the largest exporter. The widespread adoption of cotton was enormously accelerated by the invention of the cotton gin in the late 18th century, a device that drastically reduced the labour required for separating seeds from fibres.
Cotton plants bear bolls containing naturally occurring fibre colours such as white, brown, pink and green. However, concerns over cross-pollination with commercially preferred white varieties have led many cotton-growing regions to restrict the cultivation of coloured cotton.

Major Species and Varieties

Four major species of cotton are commercially grown, all domesticated in ancient times:

• Gossypium hirsutum, known as upland cotton, native to Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean and parts of Florida. It accounts for about 90% of global production.
• Gossypium barbadense, or extra-long staple cotton, native to tropical South America and representing over 5% of global production.
• Gossypium arboreum, or tree cotton, native to India and Pakistan, contributing less than 2% of world output.
• Gossypium herbaceum, or Levant cotton, native to southern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, also under 2% of production.

Hybrid varieties combining favourable traits such as fibre length, disease resistance and high yield are widely cultivated. Although Old World species dominated textile production before the 20th century, the New World varieties, especially G. hirsutum, are now the principal global sources.

Etymology and Linguistic History

The English word cotton derives from Arabic, ultimately linked to a Hebrew term referring to linen fabric. Cotton was well known in the medieval Arab world, and its documentation appears in classical Arabic dictionaries from around the 10th century onwards. Through Arabic trade networks and cultural exchange, the term entered the Romance languages by the mid-12th century and later the English language.
Although cotton textiles reached ancient Rome, the fibre remained rare and expensive in Europe until increased trade from Arabic-speaking regions in the Middle Ages made cotton more accessible. Accounts such as Marco Polo’s mention cotton cultivation in Central Asia, reflecting its importance in trans-Eurasian trade.

Early History in South Asia

South Asia provides the earliest known evidence of cotton use. At the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan, cotton fibres preserved within copper beads have been dated to around 5500 BC. Microscopic examination confirmed the fibres as cotton, making them the earliest known use of the plant in the Old World. Additional discoveries include charred cotton seeds and textile fragments from the Bronze Age cities of the Indus Valley civilisation, indicating well-developed cotton agriculture and textile production. Cotton was likely a significant economic commodity in this region, contributing to long-distance trade.

Cotton in the Americas

In the New World, cotton also has an ancient lineage. Cotton bolls discovered in caves near Tehuacán in Mexico have been tentatively dated to around 5500 BC, although this is debated. More secure evidence places the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum—the dominant modern species—between 3400 and 2300 BC in regions between the Río Santiago and Río Balsas. Communities grew, spun, dyed and wove cotton, with some of the finished textiles paid as tribute to Aztec rulers.
In Peru, the domestication of Gossypium barbadense became central to coastal civilisations including the Norte Chico, Moche and Nazca cultures. Cotton grown upriver was transformed into nets and textiles and traded with coastal communities, forming part of a sophisticated economic network. Spanish observers in the 16th century found cotton widely grown and used across the Americas.

Cotton in the Near East and Arabia

Greek and Arab scholars of antiquity initially knew little about cotton. Reports attributed to Megasthenes described “trees that produce wool” in India, likely referring to tree cotton (G. arboreum). Through interactions from the era of Alexander the Great and later regional exchanges, cotton gradually entered Near Eastern economies. Over time, cotton fabrics became common in trade routes linking Persia, Arabia and the Mediterranean.
Archaeological finds from Tel Tsaf in the Jordan Valley, dated to around 5200 BC, include microscopic cotton fibres, some dyed, suggesting either early trade links with South Asia or the utilisation of wild species. These fibres may represent remnants of clothing, containers or early cordage.

Cotton in Iran and the Persian World

In Iran, cotton cultivation dates back to the Achaemenid period (5th century BC). Although surviving records are limited, cotton was grown in several regions including Merv, Ray and Fars. References to cotton, known as panbe in Persian, appear in classical Persian literature, notably in works such as Shahnameh. By the Safavid era (16th–17th centuries), European travellers including John Chardin noted extensive cotton farms in Persia, highlighting its economic importance.

Cotton in the Kingdom of Kush and Africa

African cotton histories are closely associated with Gossypium herbaceum, a species native to southern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Although the provided text fragment ends abruptly, researchers generally acknowledge that cotton cultivation and textile production played a role in ancient Nubian societies, including the Kingdom of Kush, which developed its own traditions of spinning and weaving.

Significance and Global Influence

Cotton’s influence on world history is profound. Its domestication and spread contributed to the development of major civilisations, while its role in global trade shaped economic systems from antiquity to the Industrial Revolution. Innovations such as the cotton gin accelerated production and transformed global textile industries. Today, cotton remains a cornerstone of agricultural economies, providing livelihoods for millions and forming the basis of a vast international market.