Confucius

Confucius (pinyin: Kong Qiu), honoured posthumously as Master Kong, was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period and is traditionally recognised as the exemplar of Chinese sages. His teachings, which became the foundation of Confucianism, profoundly shaped the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere and informed Chinese thought, political culture and social ethics for more than two millennia.

Philosophical Outlook and Legacy

Confucius’s philosophy emphasised moral self-cultivation, ethical governance and the centrality of harmonious social relations. Key themes of his thought include:

• Personal and governmental morality, grounded in virtuous conduct.
• Filial piety, advocating loyalty within the family and the respectful hierarchy between parents and children as well as between husbands and wives.
• Righteousness, sincerity and benevolence, forming the ethical basis of interpersonal interactions.
• The Silver Rule: “Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself.”

He saw the family as the cornerstone of a well-ordered state and urged rulers to govern by virtue rather than coercion, thereby setting a model for moral authority. Confucius considered himself a transmitter of values from earlier dynasties, particularly the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou, believing that these traditions had been neglected in his own era.
His ideas expanded in influence during the Warring States period and, after the Qin dynasty’s brief repression of classical learning, received official endorsement under Emperor Wu of Han. Confucian texts subsequently became mandatory for entry into the civil service. During the Tang and Song dynasties, Confucianism evolved into Neo-Confucianism, a comprehensive system that incorporated metaphysical and moral philosophy. In the twentieth century, a modern intellectual movement known as New Confucianism sought to reinterpret Confucian ideas for a contemporary world.

Name and Identity

The name “Confucius” is a Latinised form created by Jesuit missionaries in late sixteenth-century China. His surname was Kong, his given name Qiu, and his courtesy name Zhongni, indicating his position as the second son in the family. Classical Chinese custom dictated that adults be addressed by such courtesy names in most social contexts.

Early Life

Confucius was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu, in the region of modern Shandong. Although nominally under the Zhou kings, Lu was effectively governed by its own lords centred in Qufu. His father, Kong He (also known as Shuliang He), served as a commandant in the local garrison and died when Confucius was three years old. Raised in modest circumstances by his mother, Yan Zhengzai, he experienced poverty during his youth.
At nineteen he married Lady Qiguan, and their first child, a son named Kong Li, was born a year later. Two daughters followed, one of whom likely died in childhood. Confucius studied in schools open to commoners, where he learned the Six Arts—ritual, music, archery, charioteering, literacy and numeracy. He belonged to the social stratum between aristocracy and commoners, sometimes described as the “Four occupations”. During his early adulthood he worked in clerical and agricultural roles, including as a bookkeeper and animal caretaker, eventually using his earnings to provide his mother with a proper burial.

Political Career

Confucius lived in a period of political fragmentation. The state of Lu was formally ruled by a duke, but real power lay with the heads of the three hereditary aristocratic lineages—the Ji, Meng and Shu families—collectively known as the Three Huan. These families held key ministerial positions in government.
Following a brief rebellion against the Ji family by Yang Hu, Confucius’s reputation as a moral teacher and adviser earned him an appointment as governor of a town and eventually as Minister of Crime. In this role he is recorded as having taken decisive action against officials considered corrupt or disruptive to public order, including the execution of Shaozheng Mao, whose teachings he deemed harmful.
Confucius aimed to restore legitimate authority to the duke by persuading the powerful families to dismantle their fortified strongholds. His strategy relied entirely on diplomacy, as he had no independent military command. Over a period of roughly eighteen months, he and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to remove the walls of Hou, the Ji family to demolish those of Bi, and the Meng family to begin dismantling the walls of Cheng.
Tensions escalated when Gongshan Furao, a Ji retainer, revolted and seized the forces at Bi, moving against the Lu capital. Although Gongshan had previously approached Confucius for support—a request Confucius refused—the uprising compelled swift action. Confucius advised relocating the duke and the viscounts to a secure palace terrace and ordered two officers to counterattack the rebels. The revolt was soon defeated, and the Ji family proceeded to tear down the walls of Bi.
The episode illustrated Confucius’s ability to navigate political crises through a blend of principled restraint and tactical awareness. His efforts forced the aristocratic families to confront the dangers posed by their fortified cities, strengthening his campaign to centralise authority under the duke. Resistance nonetheless persisted; when it became time to dismantle the Meng family’s walls, local officials successfully persuaded their leadership to resist, revealing the limits of Confucius’s influence.

Later Life and Influence

The surviving historical records become fragmented regarding the later stages of Confucius’s political engagements, but traditional accounts hold that he eventually departed Lu after the divergent interests of the ruling families obstructed further reforms. He devoted his remaining years to teaching, travelling between states, and compiling or transmitting classical texts. His sayings and conversations with students were later preserved in the Analects, compiled generations after his death.
Confucius’s legacy continued to develop through later schools of thought, commentaries and state institutions. From antiquity to the modern era, his teachings have formed a core element of Chinese civilisation and have radiated outward to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and communities across the Sinosphere. Through evolving interpretations—whether classical, Neo-Confucian or modern—Confucianism remains an enduring framework for understanding moral conduct, social cohesion and ethical governance.