Computer Assisted Language Learning

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL), historically known as computer-aided instruction (CAI) in British English and computer-aided language instruction (CALI) in American English, refers to the study and application of computer technologies in the teaching and learning of languages. Early definitions, such as Levy’s in 1997, describe CALL as concerned with exploring and evaluating the uses of computers in language learning contexts. Over time, the scope of CALL has expanded significantly, encompassing a wide array of technological tools and pedagogical approaches.
CALL today spans traditional drill-based programs and more advanced uses of technology, including virtual learning environments, distance learning, digital corpora, concordancing tools, interactive whiteboards, computer-mediated communication, virtual worlds and mobile-assisted language learning. This expansion reflects developments in both technology and language pedagogy, leading to a nuanced relationship between learning theories, instructional design and digital innovation.

Terminology and conceptual development

The earlier term CALI, aligned with computer-assisted instruction, was gradually replaced in the early 1980s as teachers shifted towards learner-centred approaches. CALI was criticised for emphasising instruction rather than learning, whereas CALL better represented the pedagogical focus on student autonomy. The related term technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) emerged in the early 1990s, particularly in institutional projects such as the TELL Consortium at the University of Hull.
Contemporary CALL philosophy centres on student empowerment, with materials designed to support independent and interactive learning. CALL resources may be structured or exploratory, but they typically feature adaptability, individualised pathways and opportunities for meaningful practice. The principles guiding CALL draw from behaviourism, cognitive theory, constructivism and major second-language acquisition frameworks, including Krashen’s Monitor Model.
The integration of CALL with traditional teaching produces blended learning, now more widespread than fully computer-based courses. Blended learning seeks to combine the strengths of computer-assisted practice with communication and interaction available in face-to-face settings.

Historical development

CALL originated in the 1960s on large university mainframe computers. A landmark initiative was the PLATO project at the University of Illinois, which pioneered interactive computer-based instruction for language and other disciplines. The advent of microcomputers in the late 1970s dramatically widened access and triggered a surge in CALL software development and scholarly publications during the 1980s.
Since then, researchers have produced extensive historical surveys. Studies documenting CALL’s evolution include work on the North American context through the mid-1990s, global accounts covering developments from the 1960s onward, retrospective analyses forecasting future directions and anthologies of influential research spanning several decades. These contributions highlight the interplay between advances in educational technology and evolving approaches to second-language acquisition.
CALL’s history is also shaped by shifting paradigms in language teaching. The growing emphasis on communicative competence and interactive learning from the late 20th century onwards influenced the design of CALL materials, pushing the field beyond behaviouristic drill programs toward more dynamic interactions and authentic uses of language.

Typology and programme types

During the 1980s and early 1990s, numerous attempts were made to classify CALL software. Researchers identified categories such as:

• Gap-filling and cloze programs
• Multiple-choice tasks
• Free-text entry and feedback systems
• Adventures and simulations
• Action mazes and problem-solving tasks
• Sentence-reordering programs
• Exploratory learning tools
• Total cloze programs, requiring reconstruction of entire texts

Many of these foundations remain visible in modernised forms, though CALL has become increasingly diverse. Since the 1990s, the rise of blogs, wikis, social networking platforms, podcasting, Web 2.0 tools, virtual reality environments and mobile applications has made rigid typologies more difficult to sustain.

Phases of CALL development

A widely acknowledged framework proposed by Warschauer and Healey outlines three major phases in the pedagogical evolution of CALL:

Behaviouristic CALL (1960s–1970s)

Behaviouristic CALL was grounded in stimulus–response learning. Programs typically used text-based drill-and-practice exercises, providing immediate feedback and sometimes branching to remedial activities. Although such programs persist, behaviourism has largely fallen out of favour within language pedagogy, and subsequent technological sophistication enabled more flexible approaches.

Communicative CALL (1970s–1980s)

Communicative CALL emerged alongside the communicative approach, which emphasised meaningful language use over explicit grammar instruction. This phase coincided with the spread of personal computers, enabling wider access. CALL software began supporting tasks that promoted originality, interaction and learner autonomy rather than controlled practice alone.

Integrative CALL (1990s onwards)

Integrative CALL reflects the incorporation of multimedia resources and the Internet. Learners now interact with rich environments combining text, audio, video and online communication. Technology supports collaborative learning, authentic communication and the integration of the four skills within holistic language tasks. Virtual learning environments and global communication platforms exemplify the integrative phase, which continues to evolve with advances in artificial intelligence and mobile technologies.

Pedagogical approaches and CALL design

CALL materials are normally informed by mainstream language teaching methodology. Designers make deliberate choices about activity types, feedback styles, and technological affordances. Key principles include:

• Interactivity, enabling learners to test hypotheses, receive feedback and refine language use
• Individualisation, allowing learners to progress at different paces and levels
• Authenticity, offering real-world tasks and communication opportunities
• Learner autonomy, encouraging self-directed exploration

Teachers often deploy CALL to reinforce classroom instruction, extend learning beyond class hours or support differentiated learning needs. CALL also contributes significantly to assessment, corpus-based study, vocabulary training, pronunciation practice and oral interaction through synchronous and asynchronous communication tools.

CALL in the wider educational landscape

CALL now intersects with fields such as digital literacy, multimodal learning, virtual reality, data-driven learning and mobile pedagogy. Tools such as corpora and concordancers support inductive grammar discovery, while online communication platforms enable intercultural exchanges. Interactive whiteboards and mobile learning environments bring CALL into mainstream classrooms, merging physical and digital spaces.
Within teacher education, CALL competencies increasingly form part of professional standards. Academic associations dedicated to CALL continue to grow internationally, reflecting the maturity of the field and the expanding integration of technology into language learning.