Campfire

A campfire is a controlled outdoor fire traditionally built at campsites to provide light, warmth and heat for cooking. Beyond its practical functions, a campfire may act as a beacon and can deter insects and predators. Modern campgrounds often contain permanent stone or steel fire rings to improve safety and reduce the risk of wildfire. In many summer camps the term campfire refers not only to the fire itself but also to associated gatherings, ceremonies or recreational events.

Historical Background

Archaeological evidence suggests that humans have maintained campfires for over a million years. Analysis of burned antelope bones excavated in the Swartkrans caves of South Africa indicates that Australopithecus robustus and early Homo erectus used fire approximately 1.6 million years ago. Additional material from Wonderwerk Cave near the Kalahari Desert has been identified as some of the earliest known traces of controlled fire use. Microscopic examination of ash and charred bone fragments shows that the materials were heated only to modest temperatures, consistent with grass, leaves and brush fuels. These findings imply that early humans were cooking over campfires as far back as the first appearance of Homo erectus, roughly 1.9 million years ago.

Selecting and Preparing a Fire Site

When available, an established fire ring is the safest location for a campfire. If no ring is present, a temporary fire site must be prepared with care. Bare rock or ground free of vegetation provides the best surface. Alternatively, a patch of turf may be removed and later replaced once the fire has been extinguished and cooled, thereby reducing long-term environmental impact. Covering the ground with mineral soil or sand helps limit the ignition of underlying vegetation. Some campers surround a fire with rocks, though this does not entirely prevent the spread of embers and can lead to rock cracking if moisture inside the stones turns to steam.

Safety Practices and Fire Management

Campfires carry inherent risk and are a frequent cause of wildfires. To minimise hazards, several safety measures are widely recommended:

• Avoid building fires beneath low branches, near steep slopes or in areas with abundant dry debris.
• Clear a circle of at least three metres around the fire of all flammable material.
• Keep ample water nearby and have tools such as a shovel available for smothering an out-of-control fire with soil.
• Maintain a small, manageable fire and never leave it unattended.
• Fully extinguish the fire by dousing it with water or soil, stirring the remains and ensuring that no embers continue to burn.
• Avoid burying hot coals, as they can smoulder unnoticed and ignite underground roots or surface vegetation.
• Consider wind conditions and ensure the fire pit is adequately sized and located away from combustible materials.

These practices are especially important in dry seasons and regions prone to wildfire.

Types of Fuel

Building an effective campfire requires three broad categories of fuel:

• Tinder: Fine, easily ignited material used to initiate combustion. Traditional tinders include amadou, birch bark, cedar bark, cotton and fatwood. Dry grasses, pine needles and even steel wool may also serve this function.
• Kindling: Slightly larger sticks ranging from finger-thickness to wrist-thickness that support the flame once the tinder has ignited. Ample kindling is essential for transitioning to sustained burning.
• Fuel wood: Larger logs that maintain heat over long periods. Sizes range from small logs a few centimetres across to substantial pieces that can burn for hours. In many parks and protected areas, collecting fallen wood is permitted, whereas cutting living trees or removing dead standing wood is prohibited. Transporting untreated firewood between locations is discouraged to prevent the spread of invasive species; kiln-dried wood is generally acceptable.

Artificial aids such as hexamine tablets, alcohol-based starters and scrap paper are often used, although burning plastics is strongly discouraged due to toxic fumes and persistent residue.

Construction Styles

Various methods of arranging tinder, kindling and fuel wood have been developed to optimise ignition and burning characteristics. Common designs include:

• Teepee (Tipi): Tinder is placed at the centre, surrounded by small kindling arranged like the poles of a tipi. Larger kindling is added above. This design ignites readily and produces strong upward heat but may collapse as the logs burn.
• Log Cabin: Tinder is placed in the centre and framed by pairs of kindling laid horizontally in alternating directions, resembling a miniature cabin. This stable structure burns slowly and evenly, making it well suited for cooking.
• Hybrid: A combination of the tipi and log cabin methods, beginning with a small tipi surrounded by a log cabin structure. It lights easily yet maintains stability.
• Crossfire: Two base logs are placed with tinder in between. Additional wood is laid in alternating layers. This arrangement produces a steady bed of coals ideal for cooking.
• Leanto: Tinder is placed beneath a slanted piece of kindling driven into the ground or propped against a larger log. Smaller sticks lean against the main support, forming a partial shelter over the tinder and aiding ignition in windy conditions.