Biosecurity

Biosecurity comprises the systems, protocols, and strategies designed to prevent the introduction, establishment, or spread of harmful biological agents. These measures apply to viruses, bacteria, invasive species, pests, and other organisms that may pose risks to human, animal, or plant health, as well as to the wider environment. In modern contexts, the term also encompasses preparedness for pandemics and the safeguarding of biological materials from malicious use. The widespread global response to the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the importance of comprehensive biosecurity measures across all nations.

Background, Evolution, and Terminology

The concept of biosecurity has evolved significantly over time and varies across disciplinary contexts. Initially, the term entered usage within agricultural and environmental sciences to describe preventive actions taken to reduce risks from endemic or introduced diseases and pests. Countries such as New Zealand and Australia were early adopters of this approach, with New Zealand formalising its national strategy through the Biosecurity Act 1993.
In 2001, the United States National Association of State Departments of Agriculture characterised biosecurity as the sum of risk management practices intended to defend against biological threats, with emphasis on protecting agricultural systems. The World Health Organization later expanded the definition, describing biosecurity as an integrated strategy for analysing, managing, and mitigating risks associated with human, animal, and plant health, while taking into account potential environmental impacts.
Common biosecurity measures include quarantine, movement restrictions, surveillance, biological pest control, and regulations designed to reduce the likelihood of invasive species becoming established. Over time, its meaning broadened to include threats from pandemic diseases and the potential for deliberate misuse of biological agents.

Laboratory Biosafety and Laboratory Biosecurity

Within scientific research environments, biosecurity is closely associated with laboratory biosafety and laboratory biosecurity, two complementary but distinct concepts.
Laboratory biosafety focuses on the safe handling of infectious agents to prevent accidental exposure or release. This includes engineering controls such as fume hoods, biosafety cabinets, personal protective equipment, and containment facilities, particularly when working with reconstructed or high-risk pathogens like those associated with historical influenza pandemics.
Laboratory biosecurity, by contrast, emphasises the protection of high-consequence biological agents from theft, diversion, or malicious exploitation. This involves systems aimed at controlling access, securing materials, and monitoring personnel reliability. From the late 1990s, concerns regarding biological terrorism brought laboratory biosecurity into sharper focus, and the WHO formalised the term as part of global bioscience security strategies.
A comprehensive laboratory biosecurity programme typically includes:

• Personnel security, ensuring individuals granted access are trustworthy and appropriately vetted.
• Material control and accountability, maintaining accurate inventories of biological agents.
• Transport security, safeguarding biological materials during movement within or between facilities.
• Programme management, integrating oversight, training, and periodic review.

Differences between biosafety and biosecurity have been articulated by experts in the field: biosafety addresses accidental release or infection, whereas biosecurity addresses intentional misuse and control over information concerning pathogen characteristics, transmissibility, and countermeasure resistance.

Oversight and Dual-Use Research Governance

Several national and international bodies regulate or guide biosecurity practices. In the United States, the National Science Advisory Board on Biosecurity was established in 2004 to oversee dual-use research of concern, defined as legitimate biological research that may be misapplied to threaten public health or national security. The National Academy of Sciences later expanded the definition of biosecurity to include protection against malicious use of biotechnology, development or stockpiling of biological weapons, and the emergence of novel epidemic diseases.
Many civilian biomedical research programmes possess dual-use potential, meaning that safeguards must prevent biological materials, technologies, or knowledge from being exploited for hostile purposes. Biosecurity protocols therefore operate alongside non-proliferation frameworks.

Animal and Plant Biosecurity

The protection of animal and plant health forms a major pillar of national biosecurity systems. Government departments of agriculture often oversee these areas due to their direct implications for food supply, economic stability, and public health.
Animal biosecurity involves preventing the introduction or spread of infectious or non-infectious agents within livestock populations. It applies at scales ranging from national borders to individual farms. Key components include:

• Biocontainment, aimed at controlling agents already present within a region and limiting their transmission.
• Improving host immunity, both specific and non-specific, to strengthen resistance to disease.
• Management of environmental factors, part of the epidemiological triad that influences susceptibility.

The aquaculture sector faces similar challenges due to susceptibility to fungal, bacterial, and viral infections during various life stages of fish stocks.
Plant biosecurity seeks to prevent the introduction and spread of plant pests and diseases that may threaten crops and ecosystems. Measures often include quarantine controls, surveillance programmes, and import regulations.

Human Health, Epidemics, and Bioterrorism Threats

Biosecurity considerations in human health include naturally occurring epidemics and pandemics—such as influenza outbreaks, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19—as well as deliberate releases of harmful agents. National and regional health departments usually coordinate outbreak response, incorporating surveillance, diagnostics, public communication, and containment strategies.
Bioterrorism presents a significant biosecurity concern. Ensuring the security of biological agents that could be weaponised is therefore a crucial objective. Many countries have enacted legislation and response frameworks to mitigate such threats.

Medical Countermeasures

Medical countermeasures (MCMs) encompass pharmaceuticals, biologics, vaccines, diagnostics, and medical devices designed to prevent, detect, or treat the effects of chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear threats. They also support responses to naturally occurring public health emergencies.
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration manages the Medical Countermeasures Initiative, which strengthens national readiness and supports interagency collaboration in research, development, and deployment of MCMs.

International Agreements and Governance Frameworks

Biosecurity is embedded within a global governance structure involving multiple international organisations and agreements. Key standard-setting bodies include:

• Codex Alimentarius Commission, responsible for food safety standards.
• World Organisation for Animal Health, overseeing animal health guidelines.
• Commission on Phytosanitary Measures, responsible for plant health standards.

These bodies feed into the World Trade Organization’s Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, which obliges member states to adopt scientifically justified biosecurity measures for imports that may pose risks to human, animal, or plant health.