Balkans

The Balkans, broadly corresponding with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographically and historically significant region in south-eastern Europe. Its definition has varied over time, shaped by shifting political boundaries, scholarly interpretation and cultural associations. The region derives its name from the Balkan Mountains, which extend across much of Bulgaria, and has long been linked to the legacy of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of nation-states and complex patterns of ethnic and linguistic diversity. Although the term originally carried a neutral geographical meaning, it has increasingly acquired political and cultural connotations, especially in the twentieth century. Today, the region is alternatively referred to as South-East Europe, a designation favoured for its more neutral tone and contemporary relevance.

Geography and Boundaries

The Balkan Peninsula is framed by several major bodies of water: the Adriatic Sea to the north-west, the Ionian Sea to the south-west, the Aegean Sea to the south, the Turkish Straits to the east and the Black Sea to the north-east. Its northern boundary has never been universally agreed upon, with definitions differing among scholars, states and cultural traditions. The highest peak is Musala in Bulgaria’s Rila range, rising to 2,925 metres and forming the most elevated point in the entire region.
Many geographical definitions include the territories of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, mainland Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, the European part of Turkey (East Thrace), most of Serbia south of the Danube and parts of Romania such as Northern Dobruja. Some broader interpretations encompass additional parts of Croatia, Slovenia, Hungary and Moldova due to historical, cultural or political connections. Although the province of Trieste lies by some definitions within the geographical peninsula, it is generally excluded from the Balkan region in regional and cultural contexts.

Name and Etymology

The origins of the word “Balkan” remain debated. One explanation links it to a Turkic root bal, referring to mud or clay, combined with the suffix -kan, implying dense forest or swamp. Another suggests a Persian origin, with a connotation of a “high house” or elevated place. In Ottoman Turkish, however, the term simply denoted a chain of wooded mountains and was used descriptively for various landscapes across Rumelia.
Historically, the Balkan Mountains were known in antiquity as Haemus Mons. Classical authors and Thracian traditions offered several explanations for this name. One myth recounts that the mountain was named after the Thracian king Haemus, transformed into the range by Zeus. Another derives it from the Thracian word saimon, referring to a mountain ridge. A further interpretation connects it with the Greek haima, meaning blood, recalling the myth in which the giant Typhon’s blood spilled upon the mountains during a battle with Zeus.
The earliest known reference to the name “Balkan” appears on a fourteenth-century Arab map, though the term’s widespread adoption in European usage began much later. The name gained currency through the writings of early modern travellers and scholars and was firmly established by the late eighteenth century.

Development of the Concept

The modern concept of the Balkan Peninsula was introduced in 1808 by the German geographer August Zeune. He mistakenly believed the Balkan Mountains to be the central mountain system stretching across the entire region from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. This misconception led to the term becoming associated with the broader lands of south-eastern Europe, even though the natural geography does not satisfy the strict definition of a peninsula.
During the nineteenth century, the term became closely associated with Rumelia and Ottoman-ruled territories in Europe. It served a geopolitical purpose, describing the European provinces of the weakening Ottoman Empire. After the 1878 Congress of Berlin and the territorial rearrangements that followed, the term was increasingly applied to maps and academic works. However, many contemporary geographers rejected Zeune’s framework, pointing out that only lands south of the Balkan Mountains met the criteria for a peninsula. Some proposed alternative names, such as the “Greek Peninsula” or “South-Eastern European Peninsula”.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Serbian geographers such as Jovan Cvijić adopted and promoted the term to advance studies of the South Slavs and support emerging national identities. Through these writings and the subsequent creation of Yugoslavia, the Balkans came to be widely recognised as a cultural and political region rather than merely a geographical one.

Historical Usage and Connotations

In historical literature, the region has also been referred to as the Illyrian Peninsula, a term that persisted in European publications until the late 1800s. The Balkans encompassed lands influenced by diverse civilisations, including the Thracian, Greco-Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and Slavic traditions. It became synonymous with the patchwork of ethnicities, languages and religions characterising south-eastern Europe.
With the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of national aspirations among Balkan populations, the term acquired increasingly political significance. During the late nineteenth century and interwar years, it was often invoked in discussions of nationalism, ethnography and state formation.
In the twentieth century, particularly following the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, the term “Balkans” became associated with conflict, fragmentation and instability. This contributed to its negative connotations, giving rise to the expression “Balkanisation”, referring to the division of a region into smaller, often hostile units.

Southeast Europe as an Alternative Term

Due to the historical and political stigma attached to the word “Balkans”, many scholars, institutions and governments have increasingly adopted the term “South-East Europe” to describe the region. This shift became especially prominent after the Yugoslav conflicts, as countries such as Croatia and Slovenia sought to distance themselves from the negative associations with the Balkans.
The European Union has also encouraged the use of “South-East Europe”, employing the term in initiatives such as the Stability Pact for South-Eastern Europe launched in 1999. Media outlets have followed suit, with publications such as the Balkan Times renaming themselves the Southeast European Times to reflect changing perceptions.

Definitions in Language and Culture

The term “Balkans” appears in varied forms across the languages of the region and neighbouring countries. Slavic, Romance, Albanian and Turkic languages have their own versions and transliterations, reflecting shared historical experiences but also distinct cultural identities. These linguistic variations underline the region’s deep-rooted diversity.