Balkan Wars

The Balkan Wars comprised two consecutive conflicts fought in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. The hostilities marked a decisive shift in the balance of power in the region, accelerating the decline of the Ottoman Empire and altering the territorial and political landscape of the Balkans. Although initially regional, the wars had far-reaching consequences, contributing to the destabilisation that preceded the July Crisis of 1914 and the outbreak of the First World War.
By the early twentieth century, the Balkan states had achieved varying degrees of independence from the Ottoman Empire, yet significant ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule. Rising nationalism, competing territorial aspirations and declining Ottoman control created the conditions for violent conflict. The wars unfolded in two phases: the First Balkan War, in which an alliance of Balkan states fought the Ottomans, and the Second Balkan War, in which Bulgaria clashed with its former allies and other neighbouring powers.

Background and Origins

The roots of the Balkan Wars lay in the incomplete political and territorial settlement of the late nineteenth century. Serbia, Greece and Montenegro had expanded during earlier conflicts, while Bulgaria had emerged as an autonomous principality in 1878, later incorporating Eastern Rumelia in 1885. Nonetheless, vast areas of Rumelia—encompassing Macedonia, Albania, Thrace and Eastern Rumelia—remained under Ottoman administration.
During the Macedonian Struggle at the turn of the century, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia vied for influence among the ethnically mixed Christian communities living under Ottoman authority. Irregular bands backed by each state clashed with one another and with Ottoman forces, contributing to instability across the region.
The internal weakness of the Ottoman Empire further encouraged Balkan ambitions. Military defeats in the Italo-Turkish War (1911) and the Albanian Revolt exposed the empire’s inability to contain uprisings or repel foreign attacks. At the same time, the Great Powers disagreed over how to address the Eastern Question, leaving local actors to pursue their own solutions. By 1912, the Balkan states had formed the Balkan League, confident that coordinated action against the Ottomans offered the best chance for territorial gains.

The First Balkan War (1912–1913)

The First Balkan War began on 8 October 1912 when Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria launched simultaneous offensives against the Ottoman Empire. Their military forces substantially outnumbered the Ottoman armies in the field, and the League advanced rapidly across Macedonia, Thrace and Albania.
The conflict was characterised by large-scale manoeuvres and sieges, including major engagements at Kumanovo, Lule Burgas and the prolonged siege of Adrianople (Edirne). By early 1913, the Ottomans had lost nearly all their European territories except for a portion of eastern Thrace.
The Treaty of London (30 May 1913) concluded the war, formally ending Ottoman rule over most of its European provinces. However, the treaty left unresolved the distribution of the conquered territories among the victorious states, particularly the fate of Macedonia. This unresolved issue set the stage for renewed hostilities.

The Second Balkan War (1913)

Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its territorial share under the post-war arrangements, attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913. The decision reflected Bulgarian expectations of predominance in Macedonia, based on earlier agreements and military contributions during the First Balkan War.
The Bulgarian offensive was quickly repelled, with Serbian and Greek forces mounting successful counterattacks from the west and south. Romania, which had remained neutral during the First Balkan War, entered the conflict by invading northern Bulgaria. At the same time, the Ottoman Empire seized the opportunity to reoccupy territory in Thrace, recovering Edirne.
Bulgaria faced defeats on multiple fronts and agreed to peace terms in the Treaty of Bucharest (10 August 1913). Although it retained much of its earlier territorial gains, it was compelled to cede southern Dobruja to Romania and to accept unfavourable borders with Serbia and Greece. The subsequent Treaty of Constantinople (1913) with the Ottomans confirmed the latter’s recovery of parts of eastern Thrace.

Role of the Great Powers

The Great Powers played a critical diplomatic role in the background of the wars, though none fought directly in either conflict. Their differing strategic interests shaped the international environment:

• Russia supported Serbia and Bulgaria as part of its Pan-Slavic policy and pursuit of access to the Mediterranean.
• Britain sought to prevent Russian expansion and maintained support for Ottoman territorial integrity while tacitly backing limited Greek expansion.
• France prioritised influence in the Levant and maintained flexible positions depending on broader diplomatic interests.
• Austria-Hungary preferred a strong Ottoman Empire to counter Serbian nationalism, fearing the impact on its own Slavic populations.
• Italy aimed to secure advantages in the Adriatic and limit the influence of other maritime powers.
• Germany, pursuing its strategic interest in the Ottoman Empire under the Drang nach Osten policy, strongly supported Ottoman integrity.

Their competition contributed to regional instability and complicated efforts to enforce a peaceful settlement within the Balkans.

Nationalism and Internal Developments

The rise of nationalistic movements in the Balkans and within the Ottoman Empire profoundly shaped the course of events. Both Bulgaria and Greece promoted competing national identities in Macedonia, often through armed groups engaged in low-level conflict. Serbia, frustrated by Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908, redirected its ambitions southwards to Old Serbia and Kosovo.
The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 initially raised expectations of reform and autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. However, subsequent political turmoil—including the assassination of the Ottoman Chief of Staff in 1913—undermined stability and fostered renewed nationalism among both Turks and Balkan populations.
In Greece, the Goudi coup of 1909 led to the rise of Eleftherios Venizelos, whose reforms reorganised the Greek military and political system, preparing Greece for participation in the Balkan League and the wars that followed.

Conduct of the Wars and Atrocities

The Balkan Wars were marked by significant atrocities committed by all sides. Forced population movements, massacres and the destruction of towns and villages accompanied military operations. The violence contributed to long-term demographic changes and heightened ethnic tensions.
Later observers have drawn parallels between the violence of the Balkan Wars and the atrocities of the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s, noting recurring patterns of ethnic cleansing and nationalist mobilisation.

Consequences and Legacy

The Balkan Wars had profound and lasting effects:

• The Ottoman Empire lost almost all its European territories, accelerating its political decline.
• Serbia emerged territorially enlarged and more assertive, raising concerns for Austria-Hungary and intensifying regional rivalries.
• Austria-Hungary, though uninvolved militarily, was weakened by the rise of Serbian nationalism, which directly affected its stability.
• Bulgaria suffered diplomatic isolation and territorial losses that shaped its later alliances.
• Romania expanded its borders and increased its influence in south-eastern Europe.
• Greece and Serbia consolidated their positions in Macedonia and the southern Balkans.