Ayodhya

Ayodhya is a historic city located on the banks of the Ghaghara River in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It serves as the administrative centre of both Ayodhya district and Ayodhya division. In recent years, the city has emerged as one of the most significant cultural and religious destinations in India, becoming the most visited location in Uttar Pradesh in early 2024, with over one hundred million visitors recorded. Ayodhya’s prominence is deeply rooted in its ancient religious associations as well as its modern sociopolitical developments.

Etymology and Names

The name Ayodhya derives from the Sanskrit verb yudh, meaning “to fight”. With the negative prefix a-, the term translates literally to “not to be fought” and idiomatically as “invincible”. This interpretation is supported by the Atharvaveda, in which Ayodhya is described as an unconquerable celestial city. Jain texts, including the Adi Purana, similarly emphasise the city’s symbolic invincibility.
The city’s older name, Saketa, appears in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Jain, Buddhist, Greek, and Chinese sources. The derivation of the term has been interpreted in several ways, commonly relating to impressive dwellings or banners. During the Gupta period, particularly under the reign of Skandagupta, Saketa came to be known as Ayodhya, a name that subsequently became standard in literary and administrative usage.
Ayodhya is also referred to as Kosala, reflecting its identification as the capital of the ancient Kosala kingdom in the Ramayana. Several cities in Southeast Asia, including Ayutthaya in Thailand and Yogyakarta in Indonesia, derive their names from Ayodhya, demonstrating the city’s cultural influence beyond South Asia.

Historical Overview

Ancient Indian epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata describe Ayodhya as the legendary capital of the Ikshvaku dynasty, particularly associated with the figure of Rama. However, these texts do not mention the name Saketa, which appears instead in earlier non-mythological literature. Works such as Panini’s Ashtadhyayi and Patanjali’s commentaries refer to Saketa as an important urban centre.
Early Buddhist texts, including the Samyutta Nikaya and Vinaya Pitaka, place Saketa within the Kosala mahajanapada and describe it as lying south of Shravasti, separated by a major river. Mahavira and other Jain teachers are also recorded as having visited the city, where several Jain shrines were located. Jain canonical indexes frequently equate Ayodhya, Aojjha, Viniya, Kosalapuri, and Saeya with Saketa, reflecting the fluidity of naming and identification in ancient texts.
Scholars differ on the relationship between the legendary Ayodhya of the epics and the historical city of Saketa. One view holds that they refer to the same urban centre, whereas another considers the epic Ayodhya to be mythological, with the historical city adopting the name only during the Gupta era. Alternative hypotheses propose that Saketa and Ayodhya were neighbouring localities within a broader urban zone.

Early Urban Development

Archaeological findings indicate that the site of present-day Ayodhya developed into a thriving town by around the fifth or sixth century BC. Its growth was linked to its position at the intersection of significant trade routes: the north–south Shravasti–Pratishthana road and the major east–west route connecting Rajagriha, Varanasi, Shravasti, and Taxila.
During the era of the historical Buddha, the city formed part of the Kosala kingdom ruled by Prasenajit. Buddhist and Jain sources describe Saketa as a prosperous trading hub and a frequent halting point for travellers, preachers, and merchants. Several Buddhist structures may have been built during the Maurya period under Ashoka. Excavations have revealed a brick fortification wall dating to around the third to first centuries BC.
Following the decline of the Mauryas, Saketa came under the Shunga dynasty. Inscriptions such as the first-century BC Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana suggest administrative control under Shunga governors. The Yuga Purana and Patanjali’s commentaries mention a siege of Saketa by combined forces of the Yavanas, Mathuras, and Panchalas, underscoring its strategic importance.
Ayodhya continued to feature prominently in literary and historical sources during the centuries that followed, eventually gaining renewed prominence under Gupta rule when the city’s renaming consolidated its association with epic tradition.

Religious Significance

Ayodhya holds a central place in Hindu tradition as the birthplace of Rama, an avatar of Vishnu and an essential figure in the Ramayana. The city is regarded as the foremost of the Sapta Puri, the seven most sacred pilgrimage sites in Hindu belief. Jain texts also identify Ayodhya as the birthplace of five tirthankaras—Rishabhanatha, Ajitanatha, Abhinandananatha, Sumatinatha, and Anantanatha—connecting the city with early Jain cosmology and historical tradition. Both Buddhist and Jain scriptures record prolonged stays by Gautama Buddha and Mahavira.
These overlapping religious associations have contributed to Ayodhya’s enduring status as a spiritual and cultural centre for multiple communities throughout Indian history.

The Ayodhya Dispute

From the early modern period, Ayodhya was the site of intense religious significance and political contestation. The Babri Masjid, constructed in 1528–29 under the Mughal emperor Babur, stood on a site traditionally revered by Hindus as Ram Janmabhoomi, the birthplace of Rama. Claims that the mosque had been built upon the ruins of a temple led to a dispute that intensified over centuries.
In December 1992, the demolition of the Babri Masjid by a large crowd triggered widespread communal violence across India. The legal and political conflict continued for decades until the Supreme Court of India delivered its judgement in 2019. The Court ruled that government land records supported state ownership of the disputed site and ordered the land to be transferred to the Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teerth Kshetra trust for the construction of the Ram Mandir. The Court also directed that five acres of land be allotted to the Uttar Pradesh Sunni Central Waqf Board for the construction of a new mosque in Dhannipur.
The consecration of the Ram Mandir marked a significant moment in Ayodhya’s religious and cultural revival, contributing to its emergence as a major pilgrimage destination.