Assassination

Assassination refers to the deliberate killing of a specific individual, typically through a sudden, clandestine, or planned attack, and usually directed at a prominent public figure. Motivations may include political, ideological, religious, financial, military, or personal factors. Throughout recorded history, assassination has served as a potent instrument of political power, statecraft, and symbolic violence. Individuals who carry out such acts are termed assassins, whether acting alone, on behalf of organisations, or as part of larger conspiracies.

Etymology and Historical Origins of the Term

The modern English term assassin derives from the Italian and French assassini, historically linked to the Nizari Isma‘ili sect active in the Middle East between the 11th and 13th centuries. This group, founded by Hassan-i Sabbah and often referred to as the Order of Assassins, carried out targeted killings of political and military leaders, including members of the Abbasid and Seljuk elites and, during the Crusades, European commanders. The etymological association between the term and hashish remains debated, with many scholars rejecting the notion that members were influenced by narcotics.
By the mid-13th century, the term assassinare had entered Medieval Latin, and the verb to assassinate appeared in English print by 1600. These shifts reflect the incorporation of targeted killing into legal, political, and literary vocabularies of early modern Europe.

Assassination in Antiquity

Evidence of assassination dates back to early civilisations. Several Egyptian rulers, including Pharaoh Teti and Ramesses III, are believed to have been killed through internal conspiracies. In Persia, numerous Achaemenid kings met violent ends between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. Classical sources from China, Greece, and the Near East also document political murders, revealing their ubiquity across ancient societies.
Texts such as The Art of War discuss the strategic uses of assassins, while South Asian treatises such as the Arthashastra provide detailed accounts of covert operations, espionage, and political killings. Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Empire, reportedly employed such tactics under the guidance of his adviser Chanakya.
Biblical narratives also include notable examples: Joash of Judah, Absalom, and King Sennacherib are among the figures whose deaths illustrate the political volatility of ancient monarchies. In the Mediterranean world, the assassinations of Philip II of Macedon and Julius Caesar remain among the most historically impactful, altering the trajectories of Macedonian and Roman governance.
The Sicarii, a radical Jewish group active in the 1st century CE, represent one of the earliest known collectives specialising in political killings, predating the medieval Nizari network and the later Japanese shinobi traditions.

Medieval and Early Modern Developments

In medieval Europe, assassination was less common among Western monarchies but occurred frequently within the Byzantine Empire, where drowning and strangulation were favoured methods. The Middle Ages in the Near East were marked by the activities of the Nizari Assassins, whose precise methods and motivations became the subject of both historical record and myth-making.
During the Renaissance, tyrannicide gained renewed prominence in European political thought, often justified as a means of resisting oppressive rule. The killings of figures such as William the Silent in 1584 demonstrate how religious conflict, dynastic rivalry, and international tension converged in early modern acts of political violence.
Legal scholars of the 16th and 17th centuries began to articulate formal objections. Writers such as Balthazar Ayala, Alberico Gentili, and Hugo Grotius condemned assassination as destabilising, unethical, and incompatible with emerging norms of international conduct. These early formulations helped originate legal distinctions between lawful combat and prohibited targeted killing.

Modern-Era Assassinations

From the 19th century onwards, assassination increasingly became a tool of political symbolism, used to provoke broader social or ideological change. The notion of the “propaganda of the deed” reflected the belief that killing a prominent figure could energise political movements or destabilise governments.
In Japan, groups such as the Four Hitokiri of the Bakumatsu era targeted high-ranking officials, contributing to the political upheavals preceding the Meiji Restoration. Assassinations continued into the 20th century, including the killing of Empress Myeongseong of Korea in 1895 and the televised attack on Inejiro Asanuma in 1960.
In the United States, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy—were assassinated between 1865 and 1963. Several others survived attempts on their lives. These events profoundly shaped national policy, public security measures, and political culture.
In Europe, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 ignited the First World War. During the Second World War, targeted operations such as Operation Anthropoid exemplified the use of assassination within resistance and military strategies. The death of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, resulting from intercepted communications, demonstrated the increasing role of intelligence in enabling targeted strikes.
Soviet intelligence agencies, particularly the NKVD, conducted multiple assassinations abroad in the 1930s and 1940s. Victims included Leon Trotsky in Mexico and political figures connected to anti-Soviet movements in Europe. These operations underscored the emergence of assassination as an instrument of state policy in the modern ideological era.
In South Asia, the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948 by Nathuram Godse marked a turning point in India’s post-independence history. In the United States, the killing of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968 symbolised the violent resistance to civil rights efforts during a period of profound social transformation.

Political, Social, and Legal Dimensions

Assassination remains intertwined with debates concerning ethics, legality, and political legitimacy. Its use can reshape governmental structures, influence public sentiment, and redirect political movements. States may publicly denounce political killings while simultaneously employing covert methods in pursuit of strategic aims.
Legal frameworks traditionally distinguish assassination from lawful combat, emphasising that targeted killing outside armed conflict violates international norms. Nevertheless, modern debates surrounding drones, intelligence operations, and counterterrorism campaigns continue to blur the lines between military action and political assassination.
Assassination also carries symbolic power. The death of a prominent leader can inspire movements, provoke retaliation, or trigger widespread instability. Conversely, failure to prevent such acts often prompts reforms in security, governance, and law enforcement.

Assassination in Global Historical Perspective

Across civilisations and eras, assassination has functioned both as a pragmatic political tool and as a catalyst for dramatic historical change. While methods have evolved—from blades and poisons to firearms and technologically enabled operations—the underlying motivations remain deeply connected to struggles for power, ideological conflict, and social upheaval.
The persistence of assassination in world history reflects the enduring vulnerability of individuals whose positions symbolise authority. At the same time, the extensive legal and ethical discourse surrounding the practice demonstrates continuing efforts to regulate or delegitimise the use of targeted killing in political life.