Ashoka (304 BC – 232 BC)

Ashoka the Great, also known as Devanampiya Piyadasi (“Beloved of the Gods, He Who Looks with Affection”), was the third emperor of the Mauryan dynasty and one of the most illustrious rulers in Indian history. His reign (c. 268–232 BCE) marked the pinnacle of the Mauryan Empire, which extended over nearly the entire Indian subcontinent.
Ashoka is best remembered for his transformation from a conqueror to a compassionate ruler following the Kalinga War, and for promoting Buddhism, peace, and dharma (moral law) throughout his empire and beyond. His legacy transcends politics, symbolising the ideals of tolerance, non-violence, and good governance.

Early Life and Background

Ashoka was born around 304 BCE to Bindusara, the second Mauryan emperor, and Queen Subhadrangi.

• He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire.
• Ashoka received military and administrative training and was known for his intelligence, bravery, and assertive nature.

During Bindusara’s reign, Ashoka served as a governor of Taxila and Ujjain, where he gained valuable administrative experience.

Accession to the Throne

After Bindusara’s death around 273 BCE, a war of succession broke out among his sons.

• Ashoka, supported by ministers and loyal generals, emerged victorious after reportedly eliminating his rivals, including his elder brother Susima.
• He was formally coronated in 268 BCE, becoming the third Mauryan emperor.

Though ancient sources like the Divyavadana and Mahavamsa describe his early reign as harsh and ambitious, Ashoka’s rule later transformed profoundly after the Kalinga War.

The Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE)

The conquest of Kalinga (modern-day Odisha) was a defining moment in Ashoka’s life and reign.

• Kalinga was an independent and prosperous state that resisted Mauryan domination.
• The war was fierce and destructive. According to Ashokan inscriptions, it resulted in:
  • 1,00,000 people killed,
  • 1,50,000 deported, and
  • Countless others affected by suffering and displacement.

The human cost of the war deeply shocked Ashoka. Moved by the devastation, he renounced military conquest (digvijaya) and embraced the policy of Dhamma-vijaya — conquest through righteousness and moral persuasion.
This marked his conversion to Buddhism and the beginning of a new model of governance based on compassion and non-violence.

Adoption and Spread of Buddhism

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka became a devoted follower of Buddhism. His conversion was gradual — initially personal, later public and political.
1. Patronage of Buddhism:

• He became the first Indian ruler to adopt Buddhism as a state philosophy.
• Provided generous support for Buddhist monasteries (viharas), stupas, and institutions.
• Encouraged both monks (bhikkhus) and laypeople to follow Buddhist ethical precepts.

2. Missionary Work:

• Ashoka organised Buddhist missions (Dhamma missions) within India and abroad to spread Buddhist teachings.
• Missions were sent to:
  • Sri Lanka, led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta.
  • Central Asia, Syria, Egypt, and Greece, establishing Buddhism as a global faith.
• These efforts helped make Buddhism a major world religion.

3. The Third Buddhist Council:

• Held at Pataliputra (modern Patna) around 250 BCE, under the patronage of Ashoka.
• Presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa to reconcile divisions within the Buddhist community.
• Compilation of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, one of the canonical texts of Buddhism.

Administration and Policy of Dhamma

Ashoka’s administration continued the Mauryan tradition of centralised governance but was distinguished by his moral and humanitarian vision.
1. The Dhamma:

• Dhamma was not a religion but a code of moral conduct aimed at promoting social harmony, tolerance, and righteousness.
• It emphasised:
  • Ahimsa (non-violence)
  • Respect for elders and parents
  • Kindness to servants and animals
  • Religious tolerance
  • Truthfulness and purity of conduct

2. Propagation of Dhamma:

• Ashoka appointed special officers called Dhamma Mahamatras to promote ethical behaviour and welfare among all social groups, including women and prisoners.
• The Dhamma was communicated through rock and pillar edicts, inscribed in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic, across his empire.

3. Welfare Measures:

• Construction of roads, rest houses, wells, and hospitals for humans and animals.
• Establishment of veterinary clinics — among the earliest in recorded history.
• Promotion of justice and social welfare through humane administration.

4. Policy of Religious Tolerance:

• Although a Buddhist, Ashoka respected all faiths and urged mutual understanding among different religious communities.
• His 12th Rock Edict explicitly promotes religious harmony.

Ashoka’s Inscriptions

Ashoka’s edicts are the primary sources for understanding his reign and philosophy. They are engraved on rocks, pillars, and cave walls across India and neighbouring regions.
Classification:

1. Major Rock Edicts – 14 edicts found at Girnar, Kalsi, Dhauli, and Jaugada.
2. Minor Rock Edicts – Contain personal reflections and Buddhist teachings.
3. Pillar Edicts – Erected across northern India, often inscribed on polished sandstone columns (e.g., Delhi, Sarnath, Lumbini).

Notable Inscriptions:

• Kalinga Edict: Expresses Ashoka’s remorse for the Kalinga War and his resolve to practice Dhamma-vijaya.
• Lumbini Pillar Edict: Marks the birthplace of Buddha.
• Bhabru Edict: Declares Ashoka’s personal devotion to Buddhism.
• Schism Edict: Warns against divisions in the Buddhist Sangha.

These inscriptions are the earliest deciphered written records in Indian history, first translated by James Prinsep in 1837.

Extent of the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka

At its height, Ashoka’s empire was the largest political entity in ancient India, extending from:

• Afghanistan and Baluchistan in the northwest,
• To Bengal and Assam in the east,
• And as far south as Karnataka in the Deccan.

Although he refrained from further wars of conquest, Ashoka maintained a strong army to ensure internal peace and stability.

Later Life and Death

In his later years, Ashoka devoted himself entirely to religious and humanitarian pursuits.

• He lived a life of simplicity, detachment, and compassion.
• His focus on peace and welfare, however, strained the imperial treasury and weakened the empire’s military edge.

Ashoka died around 232 BCE, after ruling for about 36 years. His death marked the beginning of the Mauryan Empire’s decline, as his successors lacked his vision and capability.

Legacy of Ashoka

1. Political and Administrative Legacy:

• Model of a benevolent and ethical ruler.
• Introduced the concept of moral governance — balancing power with compassion.

2. Religious and Cultural Impact:

• Transformed Buddhism into a world religion.
• His Dhamma policy became a foundation for religious tolerance in Indian political thought.

3. Art and Architecture:

• Patronage of Mauryan art and polished stone architecture.
• The Lion Capital of Sarnath, one of his pillars, became the National Emblem of India.
• The Ashoka Chakra (Wheel of Dharma) adorns the Indian national flag.

4. International Influence:

• Spread of Buddhism to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Nepal, Central Asia, and East Asia established India’s cultural links with these regions.

5. Historiographical Rediscovery:

• Ashoka’s inscriptions, rediscovered and deciphered in the 19th century, transformed modern understanding of ancient Indian history.