Arnold Schoenberg

Arnold Schoenberg was one of the most influential and controversial composers of the twentieth century, whose innovations fundamentally transformed the language of Western art music. Best known as the originator of atonality and the twelve-tone method, Schoenberg played a decisive role in the transition from late Romanticism to musical Modernism. His work challenged traditional concepts of harmony, tonality, and form, reshaping the theoretical and expressive foundations of composition.
Beyond his role as a composer, Schoenberg was also a major teacher, theorist, and writer. His ideas influenced generations of composers and continue to shape contemporary musical thought. Although his music was often met with resistance during his lifetime, it is now regarded as central to the development of modern music.

Early Life and Background

Arnold Schoenberg was born in 1874 in Vienna, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, into a Jewish middle-class family. Largely self-taught in music, he learned the fundamentals of harmony and counterpoint through independent study and by analysing the works of earlier composers. His early exposure to the rich musical culture of Vienna deeply influenced his artistic ambitions.
Financial difficulties marked his youth, and he initially worked in various clerical jobs while pursuing composition. These challenges contributed to his fierce independence and intellectual seriousness, qualities that defined both his music and personality.

Early Musical Style and Romantic Roots

Schoenberg’s earliest compositions are rooted in late Romantic traditions, particularly those of Richard Wagner and Johannes Brahms. These works are characterised by rich chromatic harmony, expansive forms, and expressive intensity. At this stage, Schoenberg still operated within a tonal framework, though he increasingly pushed its limits.
His early orchestral and chamber works demonstrate a synthesis of Brahmsian structural discipline with Wagnerian harmonic complexity. This tension between form and expression would remain central throughout his career.

Move Towards Atonality

In the first decade of the twentieth century, Schoenberg gradually abandoned traditional tonality. As chromaticism intensified, the sense of a central key weakened, leading to what is often described as free atonality. In these works, all twelve notes of the chromatic scale are treated as equal, without hierarchical relationships.
This period marked a radical shift in musical expression. Schoenberg sought new ways to organise musical material while preserving coherence and expressive depth. His atonal works often feature extreme contrasts, angular melodies, and heightened emotional intensity, reflecting contemporary anxieties and psychological complexity.

Expressionism in Music

Schoenberg is closely associated with musical Expressionism, a movement that aimed to convey inner emotional states rather than external beauty. His music from this period often explores themes of fear, alienation, obsession, and spiritual crisis.
These compositions frequently employ fragmented textures, sudden changes of dynamics, and unconventional vocal techniques. Rather than offering aesthetic pleasure, they confront listeners with raw emotional truth, aligning music with broader Expressionist tendencies in art and literature.

Development of the Twelve-Tone Method

In the early 1920s, Schoenberg introduced his most influential innovation: the twelve-tone method. This compositional system organises music around a fixed sequence of all twelve chromatic notes, known as a tone row. The row can be manipulated through inversion, retrograde, and transposition, providing structural unity without reliance on tonality.
The twelve-tone method offered a systematic solution to the problem of coherence in atonal music. While often perceived as rigid or mathematical, Schoenberg viewed it as a means of ensuring artistic freedom through discipline.
Key principles of the twelve-tone method include:

• Equal treatment of all twelve chromatic notes
• Use of a tone row as the basis for composition
• Structural unity through variation and transformation
• Independence from traditional tonal centres

Teaching and the Second Viennese School

Schoenberg was an influential teacher whose pupils included several major twentieth-century composers. Together with his students, he formed what is known as the Second Viennese School, a group united by shared compositional principles rather than stylistic uniformity.
As a teacher, Schoenberg emphasised rigorous technical training, especially in counterpoint and harmony. He believed that innovation must be grounded in deep knowledge of tradition, a conviction reflected in both his pedagogy and writings.

Exile and Life in the United States

With the rise of National Socialism in Germany and Austria, Schoenberg, who had returned to Judaism after a period of conversion to Lutheranism, faced increasing persecution. In 1933, he emigrated to the United States, settling first in New York and later in California.
In America, Schoenberg continued to compose and teach, holding academic positions and influencing the development of modern music education. Despite his intellectual stature, he struggled to achieve broad public acceptance, and his music remained controversial.

Writings and Musical Thought

In addition to composing, Schoenberg was a prolific writer on music theory and aesthetics. His essays and textbooks articulate a coherent philosophy of musical development, arguing that atonality and serialism were natural extensions of historical processes rather than radical breaks.
He viewed himself as a guardian of the German musical tradition, believing that his innovations preserved the integrity of composition in an era of cultural change. This self-conception shaped both his artistic decisions and his polemical tone.

Later Works and Final Years

In his later years, Schoenberg continued to compose using the twelve-tone method while exploring a wide range of genres, including chamber music, orchestral works, and vocal compositions. His late style combines structural clarity with expressive concentration.
Schoenberg died in 1951 in Los Angeles. By the time of his death, his influence was firmly established within academic and avant-garde circles, though his music remained challenging for general audiences.