Antisemitism

Antisemitism refers to hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed towards Jewish individuals and communities. Although the term gained widespread usage in the late nineteenth century, the phenomenon itself spans millennia and has manifested in religious, racial, political, cultural, and ideological forms. Antisemitism operates both at the level of individual attitudes and through institutional or state-sponsored persecution, ranging from social exclusion to episodes of mass violence and genocide.

Conceptual Foundations and Forms

Antisemitism has developed through overlapping yet distinct strands. Religious antisemitism is rooted in theological doctrines that cast Judaism as superseded by later religious traditions. This form historically emerged within societies shaped by Abrahamic religions and often framed Jews as refusing to accept a successor faith. Throughout medieval Europe, these views contributed to restrictions, forced conversions, and periodic expulsions.
Racial antisemitism, predominantly a modern construct, conceptualises Jews as a distinct biological or hereditary group. This perspective arose during the nineteenth century alongside pseudoscientific racial theories, classifying peoples by assumed innate characteristics. In this view, Jewish identity was interpreted as immutable, enabling discriminatory ideologies that no longer relied on religious argument. Racial antisemitism became especially influential in Europe, forming the ideological basis of discriminatory legislation and, ultimately, genocidal policies.
A further dimension involves cultural or political antisemitism, where Jews are depicted as a collective threat to national, social, or economic stability. Conspiracy theories have often played a role here, portraying Jewish communities as orchestrating political or financial schemes. This type of antisemitism emerged in Europe and, from the early twentieth century, increasingly spread into parts of the Middle East through imported narratives.
In contemporary discussion, some scholars refer to new antisemitism, describing situations in which hostility towards the State of Israel may conceal or express hostility towards Jews more broadly. While the distinction between legitimate political criticism and antisemitism remains debated, the concept seeks to address evolving patterns of prejudice in modern political discourse.

Historical Development

Antisemitism has deep historical roots. In the ancient world, tensions involving Jewish communities often reflected cultural or political disputes. However, the spread of Christian theology in Europe introduced doctrinal interpretations that placed Jews in a negative religious narrative. Over centuries, these ideas contributed to extensive discrimination, including segregation, occupational restrictions, and blood libel accusations. Violent outbreaks, such as medieval pogroms, became recurrent features of European history.
From the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as nation-states formed and racial theories gained influence, previously religious arguments were reframed within a secular vocabulary of racial differentiation. Writers and public figures in central Europe popularised claims about the supposed incompatibility between Jews and the cultural or national fabric of their societies. These ideas culminated in organised political movements promoting exclusionary policies.
The late nineteenth century saw the emergence of explicitly antisemitic associations and publications, especially in German-speaking regions. Terms and slogans coined during this era framed Jews as a danger to national identity. Racial antisemitism subsequently formed the ideological foundation for the catastrophic events of the twentieth century, including genocide during the Second World War.
Beyond Europe, antisemitic sentiment developed in varying contexts. In the Middle East and North Africa, Jewish communities experienced periods of coexistence alongside discrimination. However, in the twentieth century, imported European conspiracy theories and political upheavals contributed to rising hostility, particularly in the context of regional conflicts and shifting national identities.

Etymology and Development of the Term

The word “antisemitism” arose comparatively late, despite the long history of anti-Jewish sentiment. The term “Semitic” was originally proposed in the eighteenth century by scholars seeking to categorise languages such as Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic. Its linguistic focus bore no connection to nineteenth-century racial usage, yet later writers adopted the term to frame their ideology as distinct from religious hostility.
In the mid-nineteenth century, scholars critiquing the work of European orientalists used the phrase “antisemitic prejudices” to describe derogatory assumptions about Semitic peoples. The term was soon employed by political writers claiming that Jewish influence posed a threat to European culture. By the 1880s, organised groups adopted the term to describe their programmes, and it rapidly entered public discourse. English-language adoption followed soon after, and the term has since been used exclusively to denote prejudice against Jews.
Modern scholars note that the term is a misnomer when interpreted literally, since “Semitic” in academic usage refers to a language family rather than a race. For this reason, many institutions advocate spelling the term without a hyphen to avoid implying a meaningful category of “Semitic” people beyond its historical misuse.

Manifestations and Consequences

Antisemitism presents a wide spectrum of expression. At one end are social stereotypes, exclusion, and verbal hostility. These may arise in domestic, educational, or workplace contexts and often persist in subtle or coded forms. Discrimination in housing, employment, and public life has historically been widespread.
At a more severe level, antisemitism has generated organised violence, including expulsions, forced conversions, and destruction of property. Pogroms, particularly in central and eastern Europe, involved systematic attacks on Jewish communities. In the modern era, antisemitism culminated in genocidal policies that led to unprecedented loss of life.
Institutions, governments, and international bodies monitor ongoing antisemitic incidents, noting persistent challenges in both democratic and authoritarian societies. Antisemitism may also appear in extremist ideologies, whether political, religious, or racial, and frequently incorporates conspiracy theories about global influence or societal control.

Regional Contexts

In Europe, antisemitism has been shaped by a combination of historical religious doctrines, national politics, socio-economic tensions, and racial ideology. Following periods of emancipation during the nineteenth century, backlash movements emerged, framing Jewish integration as a threat to national identity. Twentieth-century events further entrenched stereotypes and facilitated systematic persecution.
In the Middle East, antisemitic narratives gained prominence during the twentieth century, influenced by imported European literature and political developments. These narratives were often amplified by broader regional conflicts and ideological movements. While some communities historically experienced relative protection, significant demographic changes occurred in the mid-twentieth century as many Jews left or were expelled from various countries in the region.
In other parts of the world, antisemitism has taken diverse forms, including political rhetoric, educational materials, or extremist propaganda. International organisations emphasise the need for monitoring and educational initiatives to counter persistence of prejudice.

Contemporary Issues and Debates

Modern antisemitism remains complex, intersecting with global politics, migration patterns, identity debates, and digital communication. Online platforms amplify misinformation and conspiracy theories, including recycled narratives from earlier historical periods. Antisemitic incidents in many countries reflect a combination of extremist ideologies, societal tensions, and local political factors.
Debate continues regarding the boundaries between legitimate criticism of political actions by a nation-state and expressions that target Jews collectively. International working definitions have been developed to guide institutions in identifying antisemitic behaviour while preserving space for political discussion. These frameworks often highlight patterns in which criticism becomes discriminatory when it relies on stereotypes, double standards, or delegitimisation of Jewish identity.

Significance and Ongoing Responses

Efforts to combat antisemitism include legal protections, educational programmes, interfaith initiatives, and research into historical and contemporary forms of prejudice. Schools and universities increasingly incorporate studies of discrimination and genocide into their curricula to promote understanding of the consequences of hatred and exclusion.
Civil society organisations and governmental bodies monitor incidents and promote awareness, while international institutions encourage cooperation in addressing prejudice across borders. Such initiatives emphasise the need to recognise antisemitism not only as a threat to specific communities but as a broader challenge to social cohesion, democratic values, and human rights.