Antipope

An antipope is a claimant to the episcopal seat of Rome who sets himself in opposition to a pope recognised by the majority of the Church. Throughout late antiquity and the Middle Ages, these rival figures arose during moments of doctrinal dispute, political tension or contested elections. From the third century until the conclusion of the Western Schism in the fifteenth century, antipopes received support not only from factions within the clergy but also from secular authorities seeking to influence papal policy or strengthen their political standing.

Origins and Early Examples

The concept of an antipope emerged in the early centuries of Christianity when disagreements over doctrine and ecclesiastical authority resulted in rival claimants to the Roman bishopric. Hippolytus of Rome, who opposed Pope Callixtus I in the early third century, is often regarded as the earliest figure to occupy this role. Although uncertainties remain about his precise claims, Hippolytus headed a separate community before being reconciled with the Church; both he and Pope Pontian were later commemorated as saints.
Another early figure was Natalius, a priest who accepted leadership of a heretical group known as the Adoptionists. He reportedly repented and sought readmission to communion, illustrating how antipope-like claims could arise from doctrinal movements as well as political rivalry. The first unequivocal antipope was Novatian, who in the mid-third century opposed Pope Cornelius during a dispute concerning the treatment of Christians who had lapsed under persecution.

Medieval Conflicts and the Rise of Antipapal Movements

The phenomenon expanded markedly during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when conflicts between popes and Holy Roman Emperors over appointments, reform and jurisdiction encouraged the rise of imperial-supported antipopes. Emperors frequently promoted candidates who supported imperial authority in ecclesiastical matters, while popes responded by supporting rival imperial claimants. These struggles were central to the wider contest over reform during the Investiture Controversy and contributed to prolonged instability in the Western Church.
The Western Schism (1378–1417) produced one of the most dramatic periods of antipapal rivalry. Following a disputed election, French cardinals declared the election of Pope Urban VI invalid and appointed Clement VII, who established his court in Avignon. A century of tensions associated with the Avignon Papacy intensified as two competing lines of popes claimed legitimacy. A third line began in 1409 at the Council of Pisa with the election of Alexander V, creating a tripartite division that threatened the unity of Latin Christianity.
The Council of Constance brought resolution by deposing or receiving the resignation of all rival claimants and electing Martin V in 1417. This settlement restored unity, though the Avignon claimant Benedict XIII refused to resign and maintained a diminishing following.

Questions of Legitimacy and Historical Interpretation

The identification of certain figures as popes or antipopes has been complicated by incomplete records, political pressures and shifting canonical criteria. The Annuario Pontificio, the official directory of the Holy See, notes ambiguities in several periods, especially the mid-eleventh century. It refrains from assigning definitive judgement in cases where legitimacy is indeterminate, such as Pope Leo VIII, whose status depends on interpretations of contested elections, and Pope Sylvester III, whose brief tenure remains disputed.
Similar difficulties arise with figures such as Celestine II, who resigned before consecration to avoid schism. Some historians argue that classifying him as an antipope is inappropriate, reflecting the broader challenge of applying uniform standards to events governed by differing canonical norms.

Antipopes and Ecclesiastical Hierarchy

Many antipopes exercised functions associated with legitimate pontiffs. Some appointed cardinals—referred to as quasicardinals—and a few created quasicardinal-nephews in imitation of the practice of elevating relatives to positions of influence. These actions often added to the complexity of determining lines of succession and assessing the validity of ecclesiastical appointments.

Modern Minor Claimants

Although major antipapal movements ceased after the fifteenth century, the concept persists in marginal groups that assert alternative papal claimants without recognition from the Catholic hierarchy. Examples include leaders within independent sects such as the Palmarian Catholic Church, the Apostles of Infinite Love, and small conclavist groups that hold unsanctioned elections. Such claimants lack the ecclesiastical or political support that characterised historical antipopes.
A related phenomenon occurs in Alexandria, where disputes in the fifth century produced parallel patriarchal lines in the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria. Modern disagreements within smaller communities there have occasionally led individuals, such as Max Michel, to claim titles considered illegitimate by both major patriarchates. However, these long-standing parallel successions generally regard themselves as independent rather than mutually antipapal.

Antipopes in Literature and Popular Culture

Antipopes have been depicted widely in fiction, where their roles often reflect themes of schism, rivalry and intrigue within the Church. Novels such as L’Anneau du pêcheur and Le Porteur de lumière use fictional antipapal figures to explore conflicts in ecclesiastical authority. Modern fantasy and science fiction works, such as the novels in the Endymion series, employ antipopes to illustrate political manipulation within imagined religious institutions.
The concept also appears in popular media and gaming. In strategic simulations such as Crusader Kings II, rulers may install their own antipopes to influence church governance. Historical scenarios in Age of Empires II portray medieval disputes between rival popes and antipopes. Television comedies, including The Black Adder, have used multiple popes or antipopes for humorous effect.

Historical Significance

Antipopes emerged at times when rival political and theological visions converged on the Roman papacy. Their existence reflects the centrality of the papal office in medieval Europe and the extent to which its authority was contested by secular rulers, factions within the Church and reform movements. Although their influence declined with the end of the Western Schism, antipopes remain an important part of ecclesiastical history, illustrating both the vulnerabilities and the resilience of papal governance over nearly two millennia.