Antiballistic missile

Antiballistic missiles (ABMs) are surface-to-air interceptors designed to destroy ballistic missiles during flight. They may achieve interception through explosive warheads—chemical or nuclear—or through “hit-to-kill” kinetic impactors capable of manoeuvring toward their targets. Modern ABM systems fall broadly into tactical and strategic categories. Tactical systems counter short- and intermediate-range missiles carrying conventional warheads, whereas strategic systems, fielded by a small number of states, are designed to intercept intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), which typically carry strategic nuclear payloads.
During the Cold War, the 1972 ABM Treaty sought to limit the development of missile defences to prevent an arms race in offensive nuclear missiles. Excessive ICBM production would otherwise have been one means of overwhelming defensive systems. Among current strategic ABM systems, only Russia’s legacy components have included nuclear-armed interceptors, although these have been progressively replaced with non-nuclear kinetic vehicles.

Strategic Counter-ICBM Systems

Only a few countries deploy operational systems capable of intercepting ICBMs:
Russia operates the A-135 system, upgraded since 2017 to the A-235 configuration, to protect the Moscow region. The earlier system used the Gorgon and Gazelle interceptors, originally armed with nuclear warheads. These have been updated with non-nuclear kinetic kill mechanisms to destroy incoming missiles.
Israel fields the Arrow 3 system, which entered service in 2017. It is designed to perform exo-atmospheric interceptions during the space-flight portion of a ballistic missile’s trajectory and is capable of engaging long-range threats, including ICBMs.
The United States deploys the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) system. Initially tested in the late 1990s, GMD uses kinetic hit-to-kill interceptors launched from silos in Alaska and California. It is intended to defend the US mainland against limited attacks from emerging nuclear states. With 44 deployed interceptors, the system is not designed to counter a large-scale attack by a major nuclear power. In 2020 a US Navy destroyer equipped with the Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense system successfully intercepted an ICBM-class target using an SM-3 Block IIA interceptor, demonstrating that naval systems can contribute to strategic defence.
Complementary American systems—including THAAD, Aegis and Patriot—provide layered protection against shorter-range ballistic threats.

US Plans for Central Europe

In the 1990s and early 2000s, the United States explored deploying missile defence components in Central Europe. Discussions with Poland and the Czech Republic considered hosting interceptors and radar intended to counter potential missile launches from the Middle East. These plans provoked debate within Europe and concern from Russia, which viewed the proposal as strategically destabilising. Several European officials urged that any changes in missile posture be addressed multilaterally within NATO. Public opinion in Poland during this period was generally cautious or opposed to hosting elements of the system. Later developments clarified that Europe-based installations would form part of the broader “Aegis Ashore” architecture, with operational sites established in Romania and planned for Poland.

Chinese Systems

China began developing indigenous ABM systems under Project 640 in the late 1960s. Although several interceptor designs underwent successful test flights, the programme was curtailed in 1980 due to financial constraints and shifting political priorities. More recently, China has resumed significant development efforts. It operates a range of surface-to-air missile systems with potential terminal ABM capabilities, including variants derived from the S-300 family and the domestically produced HQ-9 and HQ-15.
China has conducted several midcourse interception tests, including exo-atmospheric hit-to-kill tests in 2010, 2013 and 2021. Development continues on systems analogous to American technologies: the HQ-19 resembles THAAD, and the HQ-29 parallels the Patriot PAC-3. The Chinese Navy equips its modern destroyers with naval HQ-9 interceptors, providing additional missile defence capability at sea.

European Systems

European missile defence capability is centred on the Aster missile family, developed jointly by France and Italy. The Aster 30, used in naval and land-based configurations, is capable of intercepting ballistic missiles within its engagement envelope. It is deployed on French and Italian vessels equipped with the Principal Anti-Air Missile System (PAAMS), and on the United Kingdom’s Type 45 destroyers.
Recent tests have demonstrated successful interceptions of ballistic targets, strengthening European tactical missile defence. A new variant, the Aster 30 Block II, is under development to counter medium- and intermediate-range ballistic threats. In addition, the HYDIS (Hypersonic Defence Interceptor Study) project—a collaborative effort involving France, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands—aims to design a next-generation endo-atmospheric interceptor to defeat emerging hypersonic and manoeuvrable threats.