Ahmad Shah Abdali

Ahmad Shah Abdali (c. 1722–1772), also known as Ahmad Shah Durrani, was the founder of the Durrani Empire and is regarded as the father of modern Afghanistan. A brilliant military commander and statesman, he rose to prominence after the decline of the Mughal Empire and the fall of Nadir Shah of Persia. Abdali led multiple invasions into India during the mid-eighteenth century, playing a decisive role in reshaping the political balance of North India. His campaigns, particularly the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), had far-reaching consequences for both Afghan and Indian history.

Early Life and Rise to Power

Ahmad Shah Abdali was born around 1722 in Multan (now in Pakistan) or Herat (Afghanistan), into the Sadozai clan of the Abdali (later Durrani) tribe, a prominent Pashtun group.
As a young man, Abdali entered the service of Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia, and quickly rose through the ranks due to his courage, military skill, and loyalty. He became the commander of Nadir Shah’s elite Afghan cavalry.
When Nadir Shah invaded India in 1739 and sacked Delhi, Abdali accompanied him. On Nadir Shah’s assassination in 1747, Ahmad Shah seized the opportunity to establish his own kingdom.
At a tribal assembly in Kandahar, he was chosen as the ruler of the Afghans and took the title Ahmad Shah Durr-i-Durran (“Pearl of Pearls”), from which his dynasty derived the name Durrani Empire.

Establishment of the Durrani Empire

Ahmad Shah’s first task was to unite the fragmented Afghan tribes under his leadership. Through a combination of diplomacy and force, he consolidated power over Kandahar, Kabul, Ghazni, Herat, and Peshawar, laying the foundation of the Durrani Empire in 1747.
He created an efficient military and administrative structure and introduced a system of revenue collection that sustained his conquests. The Durrani Empire at its peak extended over:

• Present-day Afghanistan
• Large parts of Pakistan
• Eastern Iran
• Parts of northern and western India, including Punjab and Kashmir

Ahmad Shah’s rule marked the emergence of Afghanistan as a unified political entity for the first time in modern history.

Invasions of India

Ahmad Shah Abdali’s fame in India rests on his repeated invasions between 1748 and 1767, which had a profound impact on Indian politics. He invaded India eight times, exploiting the power vacuum created by the decline of the Mughals and the internal rivalries among regional powers such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Rohillas.
1. First Invasion (1748):

• Abdali advanced into Punjab but was defeated by the Mughal army led by Prince Ahmad Shah (later Emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur) and Safdarjung at Manupur (near Sirhind).
• This setback was temporary and did not deter his ambitions.

2. Second Invasion (1749):

• He returned to India and captured Lahore and Multan, establishing his authority over Punjab.
• The Mughal governor, Mir Mannu, was forced to acknowledge Abdali’s control over these regions.

3. Third Invasion (1751–52):

• Abdali consolidated his hold over Punjab through a treaty with the Mughals, who ceded control of Multan and Lahore in return for peace.

4. Fourth Invasion (1756–57):

• Abdali launched a large-scale invasion, capturing Delhi and Mathura.
• He plundered Delhi and installed his son, Taimur Shah, as the viceroy.
• The Mughal Emperor Alamgir II was forced into submission.

5. Fifth to Seventh Invasions (1759–1760):

• Ahmad Shah Abdali sought to reassert Afghan power in Punjab and counter the rising influence of the Marathas and the Sikhs.
• His repeated campaigns aimed to maintain control over Lahore and suppress Sikh uprisings.

8. Eighth Invasion and the Third Battle of Panipat (1761): This invasion was the most significant and consequential.

The Third Battle of Panipat (1761)

Background: By 1760, the Maratha Confederacy had become the most powerful force in India, extending its influence deep into the north. The Marathas, under Sadashiv Rao Bhau, had replaced the weakened Mughals in Delhi, threatening Abdali’s interests in Punjab.
In response, Ahmad Shah Abdali, allied with Indian Muslim powers such as Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh) and Najib-ud-Daula (Rohilla chief), marched into India to confront the Marathas.
The Battle:

• Date: 14 January 1761
• Location: Panipat, about 100 km north of Delhi
• Forces:
  • Ahmad Shah Abdali’s army (~75,000 men, including Rohillas and artillery).
  • Maratha army (~100,000 men, including civilians and camp followers).
• The battle was one of the largest and bloodiest of the eighteenth century.
• Abdali employed superior cavalry tactics and heavy artillery to overwhelm the Marathas.

Outcome:

• The Marathas suffered a catastrophic defeat; over 50,000 were killed.
• Sadashiv Rao Bhau and Vishwasrao (son of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao) were among the slain.
• The defeat ended Maratha dominance in North India temporarily.
• Ahmad Shah, though victorious, could not consolidate his control due to massive losses and the difficulty of ruling distant territories.

Aftermath and Later Years

After Panipat, Ahmad Shah Abdali returned to Afghanistan, leaving behind a weakened and chaotic Indian subcontinent. His victory at Panipat prevented the immediate expansion of Maratha power in the north but also accelerated the disintegration of Mughal authority.
In the long run, the battle created a political vacuum that paved the way for the rise of British power in India.
In the years following Panipat, Abdali faced revolts by the Sikhs in Punjab, who rapidly regained lost ground. Despite several campaigns (1762–1767), he failed to suppress them permanently.
His health declined in later years, and he died in 1772 at Kandahar. He was buried in a grand mausoleum there, which remains a national shrine in Afghanistan.

Administration and Achievements

1. Founder of Modern Afghanistan:
   • Ahmad Shah united the Afghan tribes and established a centralised monarchy, creating a sense of Afghan nationhood.
2. Administrative System:
   • Divided his empire into provinces governed by local chiefs under central authority.
   • Promoted trade and agriculture, ensuring economic stability in his core territories.
3. Patron of Culture:
   • Encouraged Persian and Pashto literature.
   • His court became a centre of art and learning in Central Asia.
4. Military Leadership:
   • His cavalry was among the finest in Asia, known for mobility and discipline.
   • Introduced modern military tactics and used artillery effectively.
5. Religious Policy:
   • Though a devout Muslim, Ahmad Shah displayed political pragmatism in dealing with Hindu chiefs and Sikh leaders when necessary.

Historical Significance

• For Afghanistan:
  • Ahmad Shah Abdali is revered as the founder of the Afghan nation and a symbol of unity and pride.
  • His leadership marked the beginning of Afghanistan’s emergence as an independent state.
• For India:
  • His invasions accelerated the decline of the Mughal Empire and reshaped the political map of northern India.
  • The Third Battle of Panipat changed the course of Indian history—weakening both the Marathas and Mughals, paving the way for the British East India Company to expand.
• In Global Context:
  • His empire represented one of the last great Central Asian powers before the rise of European colonialism in South Asia.