African National Congress

The African National Congress (ANC) is a major political party in South Africa and the country’s oldest surviving liberation movement. Established in 1912 to defend the rights of Black South Africans, the ANC became the principal organisation opposing apartheid following the National Party’s election victory in 1948. After decades of repression, exile, underground organisation and armed struggle, the party emerged as the key negotiator in South Africa’s transition to democracy. Since the first democratic elections of 1994, the ANC has governed South Africa, providing all five of its presidents. Its electoral dominance has nevertheless waned in the twenty-first century, culminating in the loss of its parliamentary majority in the 2024 general election, though it remained the largest single party.

Origins and Early Development

The ANC was founded as the South African Native National Congress in Bloemfontein on 8 January 1912. Its founders, including Pixley ka Isaka Seme, John Langalibalele Dube, Sol Plaatje and Walter Rubusana, came from the educated and religious professional elite and sought to unify African political efforts against discriminatory legislation in the Union of South Africa. Chiefs from regions such as the Xhosa-speaking territories expressed support, with donations such as cattle contributing to the organisation’s early activities.
Initially favouring petitioning and moderate advocacy, the ANC shifted direction in the 1920s under the influence of leaders like Josiah Gumede, who emphasised mass mobilisation and cooperation with progressive organisations including the South African Communist Party (SACP). After a period of decline under conservative leadership, the movement revived in the 1940s under Alfred Xuma and the newly formed African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL). Rising activists such as Walter Sisulu, Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo championed African nationalism and pushed the organisation towards more militant mass action.

Resistance to Apartheid

Following the National Party’s election in 1948 and the entrenchment of apartheid, the ANC adopted a Programme of Action and increasingly used nonviolent mass protest. The Defiance Campaign of 1952–53 brought widespread participation in civil disobedience. In 1955 the ANC supported the Congress of the People, which ratified the Freedom Charter, an influential statement of democratic and egalitarian principles that shaped the broader Congress Alliance.
Despite growing support, the apartheid state responded with repression. Many ANC leaders were charged in the 1956 Treason Trial, and after the Sharpeville massacre in 1960 the organisation was banned. It remained illegal until 1990.

Exile and Armed Struggle

Forced underground in 1960, the ANC relocated its leadership to bases in Tanzania and later Zambia. The movement developed organisational structures abroad while attempting to maintain limited clandestine networks within South Africa. Oliver Tambo emerged as the central figure during these years, first acting informally during Albert Luthuli’s house arrest and later formally elected president in 1985.
In 1961 the ANC and the SACP jointly established uMkhonto weSizwe (MK), Spear of the Nation, to conduct sabotage and armed struggle. Although initially conceived as an autonomous body, MK was soon integrated as the ANC’s military wing. Early sabotage operations targeted government installations. However, intensified security measures and the imprisonment of senior leaders after the Rivonia Trial severely restricted MK’s capacity inside South Africa. Most cadres were confined to training camps in neighbouring states.
Internal tensions over leadership and discipline led to the Morogoro Conference of 1969, which sought to revitalise the movement. MK’s fortunes improved after the Soweto uprising of 1976, when thousands of young South Africans left the country to join the struggle. Guerrilla attacks gradually increased through the 1980s, though civilian casualties in this period drew international criticism. Throughout its years in exile, the ANC maintained a close alliance with the SACP and benefitted from international solidarity networks.
The apartheid government, and at various times the governments of the United States and the United Kingdom, designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation during this period. Yet the ANC continued to project itself as a liberation movement committed to a democratic vision for South Africa.

Transition to Democracy

After mounting internal unrest and external pressure, the South African government lifted the ban on the ANC in February 1990. Negotiations between the ANC, the National Party and other actors paved the way for South Africa’s constitutional transition. In the 1994 general election, the first democratic election in the country’s history, the ANC won a large majority and Nelson Mandela became president.
Since 1994, the ANC has governed South Africa in a system often characterised as a dominant-party arrangement. The organisation emphasises its identity as a liberation movement and maintains its long-standing Tripartite Alliance with the SACP and the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU). Successive ANC presidents—Mandela, Thabo Mbeki, Kgalema Motlanthe, Jacob Zuma and Cyril Ramaphosa—have shaped post-apartheid governance.

Contemporary Challenges and Electoral Trends

Although electorally dominant for decades, the ANC’s vote share has steadily declined since 2004. Widespread allegations of corruption, internal factionalism, and failures in governance contributed to public dissatisfaction. In the 2021 municipal elections, its national vote share fell below 50 per cent for the first time in a democratic contest.
The 2024 general election marked another watershed: the ANC lost its parliamentary majority, securing just over 40 per cent of the vote. It also lost outright control of key provinces such as KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng and the Northern Cape. Nevertheless, the ANC remained the largest party and retained national power by forming a broad coalition government that collectively held a substantial majority in Parliament.

Legacy and Continuing Role

The ANC continues to cast itself as the custodian of South Africa’s liberation heritage, emphasising its historic struggle against apartheid. At the same time, it operates as a conventional political party navigating the demands of governance, internal reform and coalition politics. Its legacy remains central to South Africa’s identity, while its future trajectory will be shaped by evolving national challenges and shifting electoral dynamics.