Abdul Hamid I

Abdulhamid I (20 March 1725 – 7 April 1789) was the twenty-seventh sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ruling from 1774 until his death in 1789. His reign unfolded during a critical era of military defeats, territorial losses, and financial hardship, yet he remained personally devout, humble, and reform-minded. Often described as a pacifist by temperament, the sultan inherited a weakened state and embarked on attempts to reorganise the armed forces while also confronting widespread unrest across the provinces. Although his government achieved some internal successes, it was overshadowed by the empire’s significant defeat by Russia and the loss of Crimea—an event widely regarded as a major turning point in Ottoman history.

Early Life and Background

Abdulhamid was born in Constantinople on 20 March 1725 to Sultan Ahmed III and his consort Şermi Kadın. As a younger son of a deposed ruler, he spent much of his early life confined within the palace in accordance with long-established Ottoman succession customs. His confinement, which lasted until 1767, was comparatively comfortable and enabled him to receive instruction in history, calligraphy, and religious studies, largely under the supervision of his mother.
Following the deposition of Ahmed III, the throne passed successively to Mahmud I, Osman III, and finally Mustafa III, Abdulhamid’s elder brother. As a potential successor, Abdulhamid remained in seclusion until the later years of Mustafa III’s reign. Despite limited exposure to state affairs during his confinement, he developed a reputation for personal piety, modesty, and an inclination toward peace.

Accession and Early Measures

Abdulhamid I ascended the throne on 21 January 1774 upon the death of Mustafa III. He underwent the traditional ceremony of receiving the Sword of Osman at the Eyüp Sultan Mosque shortly after his accession. The empire at this moment was deeply engaged in the protracted Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), and the new sultan immediately instructed the Grand Vizier, Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha, to continue the war effort.
The financial condition of the empire was perilous. The treasury was so depleted that the customary accession donative could not be distributed to the Janissaries. Abdulhamid addressed the corps directly, urging discipline and acknowledging the empire’s economic constraints. His efforts to reconcile fiscal weakness with military necessity shaped much of his subsequent policy.

Reform Efforts and Administrative Policies

Long years of confinement had left Abdulhamid reliant on senior advisors, yet he demonstrated a consistent interest in reform once in power. His most notable actions included attempts to modernise the Janissary corps and reorganise the navy. He established a new artillery unit and supported the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School, marking significant steps towards professional military education.
Abdulhamid also sought to reassert central authority over distant provinces, particularly Syria, Egypt, and Iraq. His governors—among them Gazi Hasan Pasha and Cezzar Ahmed Pasha—were instrumental in suppressing uprisings, defeating rebellious factions such as the Klemen in Egypt and restoring order in the Morea and the Levant. His administration also aimed to regulate provincial governance and reduce the autonomy of local warlords, though these efforts yielded mixed results.

The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and International Relations

One of the defining moments of Abdulhamid’s reign was the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed on 21 July 1774. The treaty imposed severe territorial, political, and commercial concessions on the Ottoman Empire. Among its most consequential terms were:

• the recognition of Crimea’s independence—though in practice it came under Russian control;
• Russia’s newly acquired right to act as protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire;
• expanded privileges for Russian diplomatic representation;
• permission for Russia to navigate the Straits and develop commercial activities on a level with Britain and France;
• the construction of a Russian-protected church in Galata.

The treaty marked a significant shift in the regional balance of power and deepened Russia’s influence in Ottoman affairs.
Abdulhamid also engaged in diplomatic exchanges beyond Europe. In 1789, Tipu Sultan of Mysore sought an alliance against the British, appealing to Abdulhamid for military collaboration. The sultan expressed sympathy but explained that the empire was exhausted by prolonged conflicts with Russia and Austria, making intervention impossible.

Renewed Wars with Russia and Austria

Despite his inclination toward peace, geopolitical tensions compelled the sultan to confront Russia once again. The renewed Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792), fought concurrently with the Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791), placed enormous strain on the empire. While some early engagements favoured the Ottomans, the war culminated in heavy losses. The Siege of Ochakov in December 1788, during which the city fell and its inhabitants were massacred, profoundly shocked the sultan. Upon receiving the news, he suffered a stroke and died shortly afterwards on 7 April 1789.

Architectural Patronage

Abdulhamid I left behind a considerable architectural legacy, particularly in Istanbul. His most prominent commission is his mausoleum (Abdülhamid Türbesi) in Sirkeci, erected between 1776 and 1777. Around it he established a fountain, an imaret, a madrasah, and a library, whose manuscripts are now preserved in the Süleymaniye Library.
Other significant works include:

• the Beylerbeyi Mosque (1778), dedicated to Rabi’a Şermi Kadın;
• public fountains in Üsküdar, Çamlıca, and Kısıklı;
• a mosque, fountain, bath, and market buildings in Emirgân (1783);
• minor fountains in Istinye and along the Bosphorus.

Through these projects, he maintained the longstanding Ottoman tradition of combining piety, philanthropy, and architectural patronage.

Character and Personal Life

Abdulhamid I was remembered as deeply religious, charitable, and modest. During the Constantinople fire of 1782, he personally oversaw firefighting efforts, an act that enhanced his popularity. He valued family life and spent summers in Beşiktaş with his children and consorts. His daughter Esma Sultan became known for her elaborate dress and social gatherings, influencing elite fashions in the capital.
He corresponded regularly with his grand viziers, providing moral guidance and instructions in matters of governance. Contemporaries often referred to him as a veli (saint) due to his devout conduct and charitable works.

Family and Consorts

Abdulhamid I is known to have had at least fourteen consorts. He fathered children both during and after his period of confinement, which was contrary to harem protocol. Some offspring were reportedly raised outside the palace until his accession, after which they were formally acknowledged.
Among his notable consorts were:

• Ayişe Kadın, his first consort, who died in 1775;
• Hâce Hatice Rûh-şah Kadın, the most beloved of his consorts and recipient of several surviving letters;
• Beynaz Kadın, previously married to Mustafa III;
• Nevres Kadın, former treasurer of the imperial harem.