Theravāda Buddhism

Theravāda Buddhism is the oldest surviving school of Buddhism and represents the doctrinal foundation of much of contemporary Buddhist practice in South and Southeast Asia. Literally meaning “The Teaching of the Elders” (from the Pāli words thera meaning elder and vāda meaning doctrine), Theravāda claims to preserve the original teachings of the Buddha as recorded in the Pāli Canon. It is the dominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), Cambodia, and Laos, and has also spread globally through modern migration and monastic missions.

Historical Background

Theravāda traces its origin to the early Buddhist councils convened after the death of Siddhārtha Gautama, the historical Buddha, in the fifth century BCE. The first council, held at Rājagaha, aimed to preserve the Buddha’s teachings through oral recitation. Over the next centuries, doctrinal differences led to the formation of several schools, collectively known as Nikāyas. Among these, the Sthaviravāda (School of the Elders) evolved into Theravāda.
The teachings of this school were preserved in the Pāli language, a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect closely related to the language spoken by the Buddha. The Third Buddhist Council, held under Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE, played a crucial role in spreading Theravāda beyond India. Ashoka’s missionary efforts, led by Mahinda (Ashoka’s son), brought Buddhism to Sri Lanka, where the Theravāda tradition took deep root and later spread throughout mainland Southeast Asia.
By the thirteenth century CE, Theravāda had become the dominant form of Buddhism in the Sinhalese, Mon, and Thai kingdoms, replacing earlier Mahāyāna and tantric influences.

Scriptures and Canonical Texts

The Pāli Canon, also known as the Tipiṭaka (Three Baskets), constitutes the core of Theravāda scripture and is regarded as the most complete surviving record of early Buddhist teachings. It comprises three sections:

1. Vinaya Piṭaka (Basket of Discipline): Rules and regulations governing monastic life for monks and nuns.
2. Sutta Piṭaka (Basket of Discourses): Contains the Buddha’s sermons, ethical teachings, and philosophical dialogues.
3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka (Basket of Higher Doctrine): Systematic and analytical treatment of Buddhist psychology and metaphysics.

These texts collectively form the doctrinal foundation of Theravāda philosophy and practice. The Pāli language remains the liturgical medium of the tradition, and the Tripiṭaka is memorised and studied extensively in monastic education.

Core Teachings and Doctrines

Theravāda upholds the Four Noble Truths as the essence of the Buddha’s teaching:

1. The truth of suffering (dukkha).
2. The cause of suffering (samudaya), identified as craving or attachment (taṇhā).
3. The cessation of suffering (nirodha), achievable through the realisation of nibbāna (nirvana).
4. The path leading to cessation (magga), known as the Noble Eightfold Path—comprising right view, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.

The ultimate goal in Theravāda Buddhism is the attainment of Nibbāna (Nirvana), the complete liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (saṃsāra).
A key emphasis of Theravāda thought is individual effort and self-discipline. Each person is responsible for their spiritual progress through ethical conduct (sīla), mental cultivation (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā). Enlightenment is achieved by becoming an Arahant, one who has eradicated all defilements and attained liberation.

The Monastic Order (Sangha)

The Sangha, or monastic community, forms the heart of Theravāda Buddhism. It comprises monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunīs), who live under the guidance of the Vinaya Piṭaka. Monks observe over 200 precepts, including celibacy, poverty, and non-violence, while dedicating their lives to study, meditation, and teaching.
Monastic life plays both a spiritual and social role. Monasteries serve as centres of learning, moral guidance, and community cohesion. Laypeople support the Sangha through offerings (dāna), which in turn generate merit (puñña), believed to bring favourable rebirths and spiritual advancement.
The ordination ceremony (upasampadā) marks entry into the monastic community, and temporary ordination is a common cultural practice in countries such as Thailand and Myanmar.

Meditation and Practice

Meditation (bhāvanā) is central to Theravāda spiritual practice. Two primary forms are emphasised:

• Samatha (Tranquillity Meditation): Focuses on developing concentration and calmness through practices such as mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati).
• Vipassanā (Insight Meditation): Aims at developing direct understanding of the impermanent (anicca), unsatisfactory (dukkha), and non-self (anattā) nature of phenomena.

The modern Vipassanā movement, popularised in the twentieth century by teachers like Mahāsi Sayādaw, S. N. Goenka, and Ajahn Chah, has globalised Theravāda meditation practices, making them accessible to lay audiences worldwide.

Philosophical Concepts

Theravāda philosophy is grounded in realism and empirical observation of phenomena. Central philosophical principles include:

• Dependent Origination (paṭicca-samuppāda): The causal chain explaining how ignorance and craving perpetuate the cycle of rebirth.
• Kamma (Karma): Moral causation, where intentional actions determine future experiences.
• Three Marks of Existence: Impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anattā).
• Five Aggregates (pañcakkhandha): The components—form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness—that constitute the human being.

Theravāda rejects the notion of an eternal soul or self, affirming instead the doctrine of anatman (non-self) as fundamental to understanding liberation.

Spread and Influence

Theravāda Buddhism expanded from Sri Lanka to Southeast Asia through cultural and diplomatic exchanges. Its regional development can be summarised as follows:

• Sri Lanka: The earliest stronghold of Theravāda, with the establishment of the Mahāvihāra in Anuradhapura. The island became the guardian of the Pāli Canon and a centre for monastic scholarship.
• Myanmar (Burma): Theravāda was adopted in the eleventh century under King Anawrahta of Pagan. Burmese Buddhism developed a rich tradition of monasticism and meditation.
• Thailand: Introduced during the Sukhothai period (thirteenth century), it flourished under royal patronage and became the state religion.
• Cambodia and Laos: Theravāda replaced earlier Mahāyāna traditions during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, integrating local animist practices.

In the modern era, Theravāda has spread globally through missionary activities and the migration of Asian communities, with monasteries and meditation centres established across Europe, North America, and Australia.

Comparison with Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna

Theravāda differs from other Buddhist schools such as Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna in its interpretation of doctrine and practice:

• Goal of Practice: Theravāda emphasises the ideal of the Arahant, while Mahāyāna promotes the Bodhisattva ideal—one who seeks enlightenment for all beings.
• Scriptural Language: Theravāda uses Pāli texts, whereas Mahāyāna uses Sanskrit and later vernacular sutras.
• Philosophical Orientation: Theravāda tends toward psychological realism, focusing on individual liberation rather than metaphysical speculation.

Despite these differences, all Buddhist traditions share common ethical foundations and the aspiration to end suffering through insight and compassion.

Modern Developments and Global Reach

In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Theravāda Buddhism has undergone significant revitalisation. Reform movements in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar emphasised scriptural study, lay education, and social engagement. Teachers such as Ajahn Mun, Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, and Mahasi Sayadaw helped bridge ancient doctrine with modern sensibilities.
The rise of global meditation movements, particularly Vipassanā and mindfulness-based practices, has brought Theravāda philosophy into dialogue with psychology, neuroscience, and wellness disciplines worldwide. In many Western countries, Theravāda monasteries now serve multicultural communities, while lay meditation groups promote secular mindfulness rooted in Buddhist principles.