Rowlatt Act and Satyagraha (1919)

The Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the subsequent Rowlatt Satyagraha represent a defining moment in India’s struggle for independence. The act symbolised the repressive nature of British colonial rule after World War I, while the nationwide movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in opposition to it marked the emergence of mass civil disobedience as a powerful tool in the Indian freedom movement.

Background and Context

During World War I (1914–1918), the British Government in India had enacted several emergency laws, such as the Defence of India Act (1915), granting extraordinary powers to the government to curb political dissent, arrest individuals without trial, and suppress nationalist activities. These measures were presented as temporary wartime necessities.
However, after the end of the war in 1918, rather than repealing these repressive provisions, the British sought to make them permanent. The official justification was that revolutionary activities — especially those associated with the Ghadar Movement and the Annie Besant Home Rule agitation — posed a continuing threat to law and order.
To investigate political terrorism and recommend measures, the government appointed a Sedition Committee under Justice Sidney Rowlatt in 1918. The committee’s report recommended retaining wartime powers to deal with “anarchical and revolutionary crimes.” Acting on this recommendation, the British Government introduced the Rowlatt Bills in 1919.

Provisions of the Rowlatt Act

The Rowlatt Act (officially the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919) was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council despite strong Indian opposition. Its major provisions were:

• Perpetuation of War-Time Restrictions: It authorised the government to continue using powers originally granted under the Defence of India Act even during peacetime.
• Arrests Without Warrant: Police could arrest and detain individuals suspected of revolutionary activities without formal charges or trial.
• Detention Without Trial: Suspects could be imprisoned for up to two years without judicial review.
• Restrictions on Press and Assembly: The Act imposed severe curbs on freedom of speech and press, and allowed restrictions on public gatherings.
• No Right of Appeal: Decisions of special tribunals set up under the Act were final, with no scope for appeal in higher courts.

Indian Reaction and Outrage

The introduction of the Rowlatt Act sparked unprecedented anger among Indians. Leaders of the Indian National Congress, including Mahatma Gandhi, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and Madam Annie Besant, condemned it as a betrayal of promises made during the war, when Indians had supported the British expecting post-war constitutional reforms and greater autonomy.
The passage of the Act, despite unanimous Indian opposition in the Imperial Legislative Council (with only the European members voting in favour), exposed the autocratic nature of British rule and destroyed Indian faith in British justice.
It was at this juncture that Mahatma Gandhi, who had recently returned from South Africa and had successfully led local satyagrahas in Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad, decided to launch his first nationwide movement — the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

The Rowlatt Satyagraha

Gandhi called for a mass non-violent protest against the Rowlatt Act, based on the principles of Satyagraha (truth and non-violence). This marked the first all-India civil disobedience movement and laid the foundation for the later Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements.
Key Features of the Movement:

• Gandhi issued an appeal for hartals (strikes), fasting, and prayers to protest against the Act.
• On 6 April 1919, a nationwide hartal was observed. Shops and markets were closed, and people organised peaceful demonstrations.
• The movement spread rapidly to major cities such as Bombay (Mumbai), Delhi, Calcutta (Kolkata), Lahore, and Amritsar.
• Although the call was for peaceful protest, in several places demonstrations turned violent due to police repression and lack of central coordination.

The government responded with arrests of prominent leaders and imposition of martial law in several regions, particularly in Punjab, where the situation escalated dramatically.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 1919)

The Rowlatt Satyagraha in Punjab took a tragic turn with the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on 13 April 1919. In Amritsar, following the arrest of local leaders Dr Satyapal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew, thousands of unarmed men, women, and children gathered in Jallianwala Bagh to protest peacefully.
General Reginald Dyer, without warning, ordered his troops to open fire on the crowd. The shooting lasted about ten minutes, killing over 379 people (official figure) and injuring more than 1,200, according to conservative estimates — though Indian sources put the casualties much higher.
The massacre sent shockwaves throughout India and the world, symbolising the brutality of British colonial rule. It completely shattered Indian trust in British intentions and intensified nationalist sentiment.

Withdrawal of the Satyagraha

In the aftermath of the violence that spread in places such as Delhi, Bombay, and Punjab, Gandhi, true to his principle of non-violence, decided to suspend the Satyagraha. He declared that the people were not yet ready for disciplined non-violent resistance.
Though temporarily halted, the movement marked a turning point in India’s political awakening and the leadership of Gandhi. It transformed him from a local reformer into a national leader of the Indian independence movement.

Impact and Significance

The Rowlatt Act and Satyagraha of 1919 had far-reaching consequences for India’s freedom struggle:

• End of Moderate Politics: The faith of Indians in constitutional methods and gradual reform eroded completely. The moderate era of Indian nationalism came to an end.
• Rise of Mass Nationalism: The movement was the first attempt to unite Indians across provinces, religions, and classes under a common political cause.
• Emergence of Gandhi as National Leader: Gandhi’s leadership during the movement established his moral and political authority as the leader of the Indian National Congress.
• Beginning of Civil Disobedience: The Satyagraha introduced the principle of non-violent resistance as a legitimate and powerful political weapon.
• Intensification of Anti-British Sentiment: The combination of the Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh massacre fuelled widespread anger and prepared the ground for future nationwide movements.
• Repression and Reform: The British government, alarmed by the intensity of Indian reaction, later appointed the Hunter Commission to inquire into the Punjab atrocities. However, its mild recommendations further alienated the Indian population.

Wider Historical Perspective

The events of 1919 exposed the contradictions in British colonial policy. While the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (1919) were being introduced to provide limited self-government, the Rowlatt Act simultaneously curtailed civil liberties. This dual policy of reform and repression revealed the colonial government’s reluctance to share real power with Indians.
The experience of the Rowlatt Satyagraha also taught Gandhi important lessons in organising nationwide movements. It led to greater discipline, planning, and coordination in subsequent campaigns, such as the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34).