Rise of Lord Clive

Robert Clive, commonly known as Lord Clive or Clive of India, was one of the most prominent figures in the establishment of British political supremacy in India during the eighteenth century. His career marks the transition of the British East India Company from a trading corporation to a territorial power. Through his military skill, political acumen, and bold opportunism, Clive laid the foundations of British rule in Bengal, which became the nucleus of the British Indian Empire.

Early Life and Background

Robert Clive was born on 29 September 1725 in Shropshire, England, into a modestly well-off family of gentry. Known for his restless and rebellious temperament during his youth, he displayed traits of daring and leadership even at an early age.
In 1743, at the age of eighteen, he joined the British East India Company as a writer (clerk) and sailed to India. He arrived at Madras (Chennai) in 1744, a time when European rivalries—particularly between the British and the French—were intensifying for commercial and territorial control in India.

Early Career and the Carnatic Wars

Clive’s rise began during the Carnatic Wars, a series of conflicts (1746–1763) between the British and French trading companies, each supporting rival Indian princes in southern India.

• During the First Carnatic War (1746–1748), the French, under La Bourdonnais and Dupleix, captured Madras. Clive escaped captivity and took refuge at Fort St. David, where he began his military training.
• His remarkable courage and organisational abilities were recognised when he assisted in defending the British settlements against French attacks.

By the Second Carnatic War (1749–1754), Clive had become a key military leader. Supporting Mohammed Ali, the British-backed claimant to the Nawabship of the Carnatic, he led daring operations against Chanda Sahib and the French forces.
In 1751, his most notable early success came with the capture and defence of Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic. With a small force of about 200 Europeans and 300 Indian sepoys, Clive seized Arcot and withstood a 53-day siege by vastly superior Franco-Indian forces. His brilliant defence turned the tide in favour of the British, enhancing his reputation as a brilliant and audacious commander.
For his services, he was promoted and appointed as a Lieutenant-Colonel in the British Army, setting the stage for his later political and military ascendancy in Bengal.

Political and Military Context in Bengal

In the mid-eighteenth century, Bengal was one of the richest provinces of the declining Mughal Empire. It was under the rule of the Nawab Alivardi Khan, and later his grandson Siraj-ud-Daulah. The East India Company had established flourishing trade centres at Calcutta, Murshidabad, and other towns.
However, tensions grew between the Nawab and the Company over several issues:

• The Company’s fortification of Fort William without the Nawab’s permission.
• The harbouring of political fugitives.
• The misuse of trade privileges granted by the Mughal emperors.

These conflicts culminated in 1756, when Siraj-ud-Daulah attacked Calcutta, capturing the fort and imprisoning several British officers and civilians in an incident later exaggerated by the British as the “Black Hole of Calcutta.”
This event prompted the British to dispatch a strong military expedition from Madras under Robert Clive, accompanied by Admiral Charles Watson, to recover Calcutta and re-establish British prestige in Bengal.

Recapture of Calcutta and the Road to Plassey

Clive arrived in Bengal in December 1756 and quickly launched operations to retake the city.

• By January 1757, he had successfully recaptured Calcutta from the Nawab’s forces.
• Through a combination of diplomacy and intimidation, he concluded the Treaty of Alinagar (1757), which restored the Company’s privileges and trade rights.

However, Clive soon became involved in the political intrigues of Bengal, conspiring with discontented nobles such as Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh, and Jagat Seth, who were opposed to Siraj-ud-Daulah’s rule. The British saw this as an opportunity to replace the Nawab with a more compliant ruler.

The Battle of Plassey (1757)

The decisive turning point in Clive’s career—and in Indian history—came with the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757.
Key Details:

• Clive led a force of about 3,000 soldiers (of whom only 900 were Europeans) against Siraj-ud-Daulah’s army of over 50,000 men.
• The battle was fought near the village of Plassey (Palashi), on the banks of the Bhagirathi River in Bengal.
• Owing to prior conspiracies and the defection of Mir Jafar and other key commanders, Siraj-ud-Daulah’s forces offered only limited resistance.
• Clive’s superior tactics, coupled with a well-timed artillery attack and the Nawab’s betrayal by his own officers, led to a swift British victory.

Consequences:

• Siraj-ud-Daulah was captured and executed.
• Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab of Bengal, becoming a puppet ruler under British influence.
• The East India Company received enormous financial rewards—control of the 24 Parganas district and large sums of money—which laid the economic foundation of its future dominance.

This victory transformed the Company from a mere trading entity into a political power in India. It also marked the beginning of British territorial expansion.

Clive’s First Governorship (1757–1760)

Following the victory at Plassey, Clive was appointed Governor of Bengal in 1758. During his first term, he consolidated British power through both administrative and political reforms:

• Strengthened the fortifications of Calcutta and improved the army’s organisation.
• Negotiated treaties that extended Company influence over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• Maintained a delicate balance between Mir Jafar and other factions to secure the Company’s financial interests.
• Resisted French attempts to regain influence in India after their defeat.

By 1760, when Clive returned to England, the East India Company had become the dominant power in eastern India, backed by a formidable army and enormous revenue.

Return to India and the Battle of Buxar (1764)

Corruption, mismanagement, and political instability in Bengal compelled Clive to return to India in 1765 as Governor and Commander-in-Chief. By this time, the Company’s authority had been challenged by the combined forces of Mir Qasim (the new Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daulah (the Nawab of Awadh), and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
The Battle of Buxar (1764), fought under the command of Major Hector Munro, decisively defeated the combined Indian forces, confirming British supremacy in northern India.
Clive’s return led to the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), under which the Mughal Emperor granted the East India Company the Diwani (right of revenue collection) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This effectively made the Company the ruler of Bengal and established the dual system of administration — the Company collected revenue while the Nawab retained nominal authority.

Reforms and Administration

During his second tenure (1765–1767), Clive introduced significant reforms to curb corruption and strengthen the Company’s governance:

• Reorganised the civil and military administration to reduce private trade and bribery.
• Implemented measures to create a “Covenanted Civil Service” to ensure accountability among Company officials.
• Introduced the Dual Government System, separating the functions of revenue and administration between the Company and the Nawab.
• Laid the foundations of the British administrative and military structure in Bengal.

Though his measures improved discipline and efficiency, they also led to criticism, particularly regarding the exploitation of Bengal’s resources by Company officials.

Return to England and Later Life

Clive returned to England in 1767, immensely wealthy but also facing severe political opposition. He was accused of corruption, abuse of power, and personal enrichment through Company revenues.
A parliamentary inquiry in 1772–1773 investigated his conduct, but he successfully defended himself, arguing that his actions had saved the British Empire in India. Parliament ultimately acquitted him, recognising his contributions to British supremacy.
However, the strain of controversy and public criticism took a toll on his health. Suffering from depression and ill health, Robert Clive died on 22 November 1774, reportedly by suicide.

Evaluation and Legacy

Lord Clive remains a controversial yet pivotal figure in Indian and British history.
Achievements:

• Laid the foundation of British political and economic dominance in India.
• Transformed the East India Company from a trading organisation into a sovereign power.
• Displayed exceptional military strategy and political foresight, particularly at Arcot and Plassey.
• Initiated administrative structures that evolved into the British Indian bureaucracy.

Criticisms:

• His career symbolises the beginnings of economic exploitation and political subjugation of India.
• His accumulation of wealth and involvement in Company corruption made him a target of moral and political condemnation.
• The Dual Government system introduced under his rule led to administrative inefficiency and contributed to Bengal’s economic decline, culminating in the famine of 1770.