Rise of Afghans and Third Battle of Panipat

The rise of the Afghans and their role in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) mark a defining phase in eighteenth-century Indian history. This period witnessed the resurgence of Afghan power under Ahmad Shah Durrani (Ahmad Shah Abdali) and the consequent clash between the Afghans and the Marathas for supremacy in northern India. The battle, fought on 14 January 1761, was one of the largest and bloodiest confrontations in Indian history and had profound political, military, and cultural consequences for the Indian subcontinent.

Background: Political Conditions in Eighteenth-Century India

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Empire began to disintegrate rapidly. Central authority weakened, and provincial governors, regional powers, and foreign invaders competed for dominance. This vacuum gave rise to several competing political entities:

• The Marathas, expanding northwards from the Deccan, sought to establish an all-India confederacy.
• The Afghans, under Ahmad Shah Durrani, aimed to restore Afghan influence in northern India.
• The Mughals, though nominally in power, had become politically impotent.
• Other regional powers, including the Jats, Rohillas, and Rajputs, pursued their local interests.

Amidst this turmoil, India became an arena for both internal rivalries and external invasions, culminating in the Third Battle of Panipat.

Rise of the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durrani

Early Life and Rise to Power

Ahmad Shah Durrani (1722–1772), also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, was born in Multan and belonged to the Sadozai clan of the Abdali (later Durrani) tribe of Afghans. Initially serving under Nadir Shah of Persia, Ahmad Shah rose through the ranks as a trusted military commander.
After Nadir Shah’s assassination in 1747, Ahmad Shah consolidated his power in Kandahar and was proclaimed ruler, establishing the Durrani Empire, which became the nucleus of modern Afghanistan. He adopted the title Durr-i-Durran (Pearl of Pearls), from which the term Durrani derives.

Ahmad Shah’s Invasions of India

Between 1748 and 1767, Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India eight times, motivated by both plunder and ambition to dominate the north-western frontier. His repeated incursions exposed the weakness of the Mughal Empire and altered the political balance in northern India.

1. First Invasion (1748):
   • He was defeated at the Battle of Manupur near Sirhind by the Mughal viceroy Safdar Jang, marking an initial setback.
2. Second Invasion (1749):
   • Ahmad Shah annexed Sindh and extended his control into Punjab.
3. Third Invasion (1752):
   • The Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah (1748–1754) was compelled to cede Punjab and Multan to the Afghans.
4. Fourth Invasion (1756–57):
   • Ahmad Shah sacked Delhi and captured immense wealth. He reinstalled the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II but exercised real control over north India.
5. Fifth and Sixth Invasions:
   • These were aimed at suppressing rebellions and asserting authority over Punjab.
6. Seventh Invasion (1760–61):
   • The most significant of all, this invasion culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat, fought against the expanding Maratha power.

The Rise of the Marathas

By the mid-eighteenth century, the Marathas had emerged as the dominant power in India. Under Balaji Vishwanath and his successors, particularly Baji Rao I and Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb), they expanded northwards, controlling Delhi and large parts of the Mughal territories.
After the decline of Mughal authority, the Marathas sought to establish themselves as the new imperial power in India. In 1758, a Maratha army under Raghunath Rao and Malhar Rao Holkar captured Lahore and even advanced up to the Khyber Pass, challenging Afghan supremacy in Punjab. This expansion alarmed Ahmad Shah Durrani, prompting his decisive return to India.

Prelude to the Third Battle of Panipat

The Marathas’ expansion into Punjab directly provoked Ahmad Shah’s seventh invasion in 1760. The Afghans, supported by the Rohillas (Afghan chiefs of Rohilkhand) and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh, mobilised to resist the Maratha advance.
The Marathas, under Sadashiv Rao Bhau, were determined to expel the Afghans and consolidate their northern empire. The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, then a powerless figurehead, became a pawn between these competing forces.

The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761)

Opposing Forces

• Afghan Alliance: Led by Ahmad Shah Durrani, supported by Najib-ud-Daula (Rohilla chief), Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh), and other regional Afghan contingents.
• Maratha Confederacy: Led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau, with key leaders including Vishwasrao (son of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao), Ibrahim Khan Gardi (commander of artillery), Mahadji Shinde, Malhar Rao Holkar, and Jankoji Scindia.

Location and Composition

The battle took place near Panipat, north of Delhi, a historic battlefield where two major earlier battles (1526 and 1556) had also decided the fate of India.

• The Marathas fielded around 45,000–50,000 troops, including a large artillery division.
• The Afghan-led coalition numbered about 60,000–70,000, supported by additional irregular forces.

Course of the Battle

• Initial Phase: The Marathas, well-entrenched with strong artillery, initially held the upper hand. Ibrahim Khan Gardi’s disciplined musket and cannon fire inflicted heavy casualties on Afghan cavalry.
• Tactical Manoeuvres: Ahmad Shah’s forces used superior cavalry tactics, mobility, and endurance. His use of camels mounted with swivel guns (zamburaks) and the strategic encirclement of the Maratha flanks gradually turned the tide.
• Decisive Moment: During the critical phase, the Marathas suffered from exhaustion, shortage of supplies, and communication failures. Vishwasrao was killed in battle, and morale collapsed. Sadashiv Rao Bhau and many leading Maratha nobles perished, resulting in a catastrophic rout.

Outcome

The Afghans achieved a decisive victory, but it came at a massive human cost. Contemporary sources estimate that over 70,000 soldiers were killed in a single day, and tens of thousands were wounded or captured. The battlefield was strewn with corpses, earning the event a grim reputation as one of the most devastating battles in history.

Consequences of the Battle

1. Decline of the Maratha Power: The defeat at Panipat shattered Maratha ambitions of controlling northern India. Their leadership was decimated, and their prestige suffered a severe blow. It took nearly a decade for the Marathas to recover under Madhav Rao I, who restored some of their lost influence.
2. Afghan Withdrawal: Although victorious, Ahmad Shah Durrani did not establish long-term control over India. The enormous losses and logistical difficulties forced him to withdraw to Afghanistan, leaving a power vacuum in northern India.
3. Mughal Irrelevance: The Mughal Emperor remained a nominal figure, unable to exercise authority. The empire effectively ceased to function as a political entity.
4. Rise of the British East India Company: The weakening of both Maratha and Afghan power created the conditions for the British East India Company to expand its influence. Within two decades, the Company had emerged as the dominant power in India, following victories at Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764).
5. Demographic and Social Impact: The battle caused immense loss of life and disrupted the socio-economic fabric of northern India. It led to famine, depopulation, and widespread displacement.

Significance of the Third Battle of Panipat

1. End of Afghan Intervention: The battle marked the last major invasion of India from the northwest. Ahmad Shah’s descendants could not sustain power in India, and Afghanistan’s role in Indian politics declined thereafter.
2. Turning Point in Indian History: Panipat marked the end of large-scale native Indian empires vying for all-India supremacy. The political fragmentation that followed paved the way for colonial consolidation under the British.
3. Military Lessons: The battle demonstrated the challenges of logistics and coordination across vast distances. The Marathas’ failure highlighted the limits of regional powers operating far from their home base.
4. Cultural Memory: The Third Battle of Panipat became a powerful symbol in Indian historical memory — of both heroism and tragedy. Its scale and carnage influenced literary and historical works in Marathi, Persian, and Hindi traditions.