Pomegranate

The pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree belonging to the family Lythraceae, subfamily Punica. Noted for its deep symbolic and mythological significance across numerous cultures, it is believed to have originated in the region spanning present-day Afghanistan and Iran before being disseminated across Asia, Africa and Europe. By the late sixteenth century it had been introduced into Spanish America, and by 1769 it arrived in California through the efforts of New Spain. Today the species is cultivated widely throughout West and Central Asia, the Caucasus, South and Southeast Asia, North and tropical Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin. Its fruits are typically in season from September to February in the Northern Hemisphere and from March to May in the Southern Hemisphere. Pomegranates and their juice are used extensively in cooking, baking, syrups, non-alcoholic preparations and cocktails.

Etymology

The name pomegranate derives from medieval Latin, meaning “seeded apple”, and possibly from Old French forms used for the fruit. Early English records refer to it as the “apple of Granada”, a name surviving in heraldic traditions. A false etymological link is sometimes made between the fruit and the Spanish city of Granada, though the city’s name originates from an unrelated Arabic term. The gemstone name “garnet” also derives from Old French and medieval Latin and may relate either to the colour of pomegranate pulp or to granum, referring to red dye. The modern French grenade also gave its name to the military explosive. In Ireland the fruit was once colloquially called the “wine-apple”, a term still occasionally heard in Dublin’s Moore Street market.

Description

The pomegranate grows to a height of between 5 and 10 metres, forming multiple spiny branches and capable of surviving for centuries; several individuals in France exceed 200 years of age. The leaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow and entire, measuring 3–7 cm long and 2 cm wide. Its bright red flowers are 3 cm in diameter with three to seven petals, and some ornamental cultivars are grown specifically for these blossoms.
The fruit has a thick reddish-purple husk with an exterior pericarp and an interior spongy mesocarp (white albedo). The mesocarp partitions the fruit into irregular chambers that hold the seeds, which sit freely without attachment. Each seed is encased in a sarcotesta—a fleshy seed coat derived from the ovule’s epidermal layers. A typical fruit contains between 200 and 1400 seeds. Botanically, pomegranates are berries produced from a single flower. The fruits measure 5–12 cm in diameter, approximately between the size of a lemon and a grapefruit. The juice extracted from the seeds has a low pH and a high concentration of polyphenols, including anthocyanins and ellagitannins, giving it a strong tart flavour and a tendency to stain fabric.

Cultivation

Pomegranates are cultivated both as fruit crops and ornamental plants. Mature trees develop twisted bark, multiple trunks and distinctive sculptural forms. They thrive in arid climates, especially Mediterranean regions with winter rainfall or areas with summer rainfall, provided drainage is adequate. In humid regions they are more vulnerable to fungal root diseases. They tolerate moderate frosts and are susceptible to pests such as butterflies (Virachola isocrates, Iraota timoleon, Deudorix epijarbas), leaffooted bugs (Leptoglossus zonatus), fruit flies and ants attracted to overripe fruit.

Propagation

Although P. granatum reproduces sexually, it is commonly propagated asexually through layering, hardwood and softwood cuttings or tissue culture. Successful rooting requires warm temperatures between 18–29°C and a semi-humid environment; the application of auxins promotes but is not essential for root development. Grafting is possible but rarely practised due to low success rates.

Varieties and Species

The dwarf variety P. granatum var. nana is widely grown as an ornamental plant and as a bonsai specimen; it has received the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit. The only other species in the genus Punica is Punica protopunica, endemic to the Socotra archipelago of Yemen, distinguished by its pink flowers and smaller, less sweet fruit.

Cultivars

More than 500 named cultivars of P. granatum exist, though many are synonyms of the same underlying genetic types. Cultivar selection is based on traits such as fruit size, husk colour (ranging from yellow to purple), seed coat colour (from white to red), seed hardness, maturity time, juice content and flavour profile, including sweetness, acidity and astringency.

Production and Export

India and China are the world’s leading producers, followed by Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, the United States, Iraq, Pakistan, Syria and Spain. In 2019, major suppliers to the European Union included Chile, Peru, Egypt, Israel, India and Turkey. The United States market relies heavily on Chilean imports, supplemented by limited production in southern California. China is largely self-sufficient, while India is the principal supplier to many South Asian markets. South Africa competes in export markets with South American producers, shipping to Europe, the Middle East, the United Kingdom and Russia, while importing mainly from Israel.

History and Archaeology

Native to the region from modern-day Iran to northern India, the pomegranate has been cultivated for millennia across the Middle East, India and the Mediterranean. Evidence suggests domestication as early as the fifth millennium BC, making it one of the earliest fruit trees to be cultivated. Carbonised remains occur in early Bronze Age strata at Tell es-Sultan (West Bank) and late Bronze Age levels at Hala Sultan Tekke (Cyprus) and Tiryns (Greece). A large desiccated specimen was retrieved from the tomb of Djehuty, an official under Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt. Cuneiform records from Mesopotamia reference pomegranates from the mid-third millennium BC, and waterlogged remains were found in the fourteenth-century-BC Uluburun shipwreck, indicating their value as a luxury good.
Other late Bronze Age finds in elite residences further confirm their prestige. The species spread eastward into China and Southeast Asia, possibly along the Silk Road or via maritime trade. Afghanistan’s Kandahar region is especially renowned for high-quality fruit. Although not native to Korea or Japan, the species has been widely cultivated there, yielding numerous regional cultivars. Its aesthetic qualities—particularly the flowers and twisted bark—make it popular for bonsai.
The colour term “balaustine” refers to the characteristic red of the blossoms. Spanish colonists introduced the fruit to the Caribbean and Spanish America, though it proved less suited to the climate of British America. Correspondence from eighteenth-century botanists, such as Peter Collinson’s 1762 letter to John Bartram, illustrates efforts to acclimatise the species by sheltering it against warm walls.