Peshawar

Peshawar is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in South Asia and serves as the capital of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Located in the fertile Valley of Peshawar near the eastern mouth of the historic Khyber Pass, the city has played a central role in regional trade, politics, and culture for more than two millennia. Its population today is predominantly Pashtun, reflecting the deep-rooted ethnic and cultural traditions of the region. Owing to its strategic location and long history, Peshawar has witnessed the rise and fall of several major empires and remains an important cultural and economic hub.

Geographic and Demographic Context

Peshawar lies in north-western Pakistan in a broad valley formed by ancient alluvial sediments, making it a region of agricultural significance. Its proximity to the Khyber Pass historically positioned it as a gateway between Central Asia and the northern Indian subcontinent. The modern city is the sixth most populous urban centre in Pakistan, with its wider district recording a population exceeding several million in the 2023 census. The Pashtuns constitute the majority of its inhabitants, representing the second-largest ethnic group in the country and shaping the linguistic, cultural, and social identity of the city.
The climate of Peshawar is semi-arid, with hot summers and mild winters, facilitating agricultural production in surrounding rural areas. The city’s urban landscape consists of a blend of historic bazaars, Islamic architecture, and modern administrative buildings. Its economic activities span trade, services, small-scale manufacturing, agriculture-related commerce, and cross-border transit trade with Afghanistan.

Early Historical Foundations

The area of modern-day Peshawar features prominently in ancient Vedic scriptures, where it is associated with Gandhara, a major cultural and religious region of early South Asia. The earliest recorded name for the settlement was Purushapura, often translated as City of Men or City of Purusha. Archaeological evidence suggests the region was settled as early as the fifth century BCE, initially as a small village that gradually developed into a thriving urban centre.
By the early first century CE, Purushapura had become an important city of the Gandhara region. Its proximity to Pushkalavati—another key Gandharan settlement near present-day Charsadda—allowed it to develop as a centre for trade, artistic production, and religious scholarship. Both Sanskrit and Gandhari Prakrit were used in the region, particularly during the dominance of Buddhist polities, and inscriptions in the Kharosthi script have been unearthed in and around Peshawar.

Greek, Mauryan, and Indo-Parthian Influence

During the winter of 327–326 BCE, the forces of Alexander the Great subdued the Valley of Peshawar as part of their wider Indian campaign. After Alexander’s death, the region came under the influence of Seleucus I Nicator of the Seleucid Empire. A notable artefact discovered in Peshawar—a vase fragment depicting a scene from Sophocles’ Antigone—attests to the presence of Hellenistic culture in the area.
Following the Seleucid–Mauryan agreement around 303 BCE, the valley was ceded to the Mauryan Empire. Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador at the Mauryan court, recorded that Purushapura served as the western terminus of a major Mauryan road linking it with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. After the decline of Mauryan authority, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom seized control of the valley around 190 BCE. In the first century CE, the Indo-Parthian ruler Gondophares occupied the region and is associated with the establishment of the nearby Takht-i-Bahi monastery, a major Buddhist monastic centre.

The Kushan Era and Buddhist Significance

Peshawar reached its early zenith during the rule of the Kushan Empire. Kujula Kadphises, founder of the empire, incorporated Purushapura into his dominion in the first century CE. Under Emperor Kanishka, the city became the empire’s principal capital, while Kapisi (modern Bagram in Afghanistan) served as the summer capital. The population is estimated to have reached approximately 120,000, making it one of the world’s largest cities at the time.
Kanishka, a devout patron of Buddhism, established the grand Kanishka Mahavihara monastery in the city. After his death, the famed Kanishka Stupa was constructed to enshrine sacred Buddhist relics. Ancient travellers described the structure as one of the tallest monuments in the world, with estimates suggesting a height that dominated the surrounding landscape. The stupa symbolised the region’s prominence as an international centre of Buddhist learning and pilgrimage.
The decline of Kushan power began in the third century CE, particularly after the Sasanian Empire under Shapur I attacked Peshawar around 260 CE. Many Buddhist monuments and monasteries suffered heavy destruction, and the city’s prosperity diminished as key trade routes westward were blocked. Although brief attempts at revival were made by later Kushan rulers, the city soon came under the control of the Kidarites in the early fifth century CE.

White Huns and Later Antiquity

The Hephthalite or White Hun invasions of the fifth century CE brought further devastation. Numerous Buddhist sites across Gandhara were destroyed, and the urban core of ancient Peshawar suffered major damage. The Kanishka Stupa, however, was rebuilt during this period with a tall wooden superstructure adorned by a gilded chatra (umbrella).
Travellers such as Faxian and Song Yun visited the region during the White Hun era. Faxian described the stupa as the tallest tower in the land of Jambudvipa, while Song Yun recorded conflicts involving the area around the early sixth century CE. By the time Xuanzang visited in the seventh century CE, the city’s famous monuments were largely ruined, though a small Buddhist community continued to occupy parts of the old city.

Mediaeval and Islamic Periods

Until the mid-seventh century, a ruling elite of Central Asian Scythian origin dominated Peshawar. They were eventually displaced by the Hindu Shahis of Kabul, who controlled the region before the expansion of Muslim polities into the north-western subcontinent.
During the mediaeval Islamic period, Peshawar became an important frontier outpost and trading city. Its position near key mountain passes allowed it to flourish commercially. Various dynasties ruled the area, including the Ghaznavids and later the Mughals, who integrated Peshawar into their imperial administrative and trading networks.
Under Mughal rule, the city prospered as a commercial centre, benefiting from its location on routes connecting Central Asia with northern India. Following the decline of Mughal power in the eighteenth century, Peshawar came under the control of the Durrani Empire in 1747 and served as the winter capital from 1776.

Sikh and British Periods

In 1823, the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar, ending Durrani control. The city later fell to the British East India Company in 1849 after the annexation of the Punjab. Under British administration, Peshawar became a key military and administrative centre on the empire’s north-western frontier. The establishment of cantonments, roads, and colonial institutions reshaped the city’s urban form.
Peshawar remained under British rule until the 1947 Partition of British India. After independence, it became one of the major cities of Pakistan and was designated capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly the North-West Frontier Province).

Etymology and Cultural Identity

The name Peshawar is widely believed to derive from the Sanskrit Purushapura, though alternative derivations have been proposed. Some scholars argue that the modern Persian-influenced form may mean frontier city or place of first arrival, reflecting its location at the threshold of the subcontinent after crossing the Khyber Pass. Historical records reveal variants including Parashawar, Parashwar, Purshawar, and Peshwar, indicating centuries of linguistic evolution.
Chinese Buddhist travellers, including Faxian and Xuanzang, recorded names such as Foulousha and Polashapulo, phonetic transliterations of Purushapura. An inscription from the Sasanian period refers to a city named pskbvr, which may also represent Peshawar. Persian chronicles, such as those by Abul-Fazl during the Mughal era, list both Parashwar and Peshwar.