Madagascar

Madagascar, the world’s fourth-largest island, lies in the Indian Ocean, off the southeastern coast of Africa. Its vast geographical isolation has produced one of the planet’s most distinctive ecological systems and a society shaped by a confluence of Asian, African, and European influences. Settled late in human prehistory, Madagascar evolved from a mosaic of independent kingdoms into a modern semi-presidential republic. Despite its abundance of natural resources and biological diversity, the country continues to face structural challenges, including poverty, political volatility, and environmental degradation.

Historical Background

Human settlement in Madagascar began between A.D. 350 and 550, when Austronesian voyagers from present-day Indonesia arrived, bringing language, crops, and maritime skills. Subsequent migrations from East Africa (around A.D. 1000) and interactions with Arab and Persian traders along the coasts enriched Madagascar’s demographic and cultural composition.
By the sixteenth century, a series of regional kingdoms had emerged. Among them, the Merina Kingdom, based in the central highlands, expanded during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries under King Andrianampoinimerina and his son Radama I, unifying much of the island. Meanwhile, Madagascar’s coastal settlements became entangled in the Indian Ocean slave trade and piracy, particularly around Île Sainte-Marie.
In 1896, following the Franco-Hova wars, France annexed Madagascar, transforming it into a colony of the French Empire. Colonial rule introduced European education and administration but disrupted local systems and exploited natural resources. The struggle for independence intensified after World War II, culminating in independence on 26 June 1960 under President Philibert Tsiranana.
Post-independence history has alternated between authoritarianism and democracy. Didier Ratsiraka’s socialist regime (1975–1993) emphasised nationalism and state control before yielding to multi-party reforms. Persistent electoral disputes, notably the 2001–02 crisis and the 2009 coup led by Andry Rajoelina, reflected underlying political instability. After internationally mediated transitions, constitutional order was restored with elections in 2013, followed by Rajoelina’s return to power in 2019 and re-election in 2023, consolidating civilian governance despite limited opposition participation.

Geography and Environment

Madagascar lies east of Mozambique between latitudes 12°S and 26°S and longitudes 43°E and 51°E, spanning 587,041 square kilometres (of which 5,501 sq km is water). The island’s topography includes narrow coastal plains, central high plateaus, and mountain ranges dominated by Maromokotro Peak (2,876 m). The climate varies regionally—tropical along the coasts, temperate in the highlands, and arid in the southern regions.
The island’s biogeographic isolation for over 80 million years has produced extraordinary endemism—about 90% of plant and animal species are unique to Madagascar, including lemurs, baobabs, and chameleons. These ecological riches underpin international conservation efforts but remain threatened by deforestation, slash-and-burn agriculture (tavy), soil erosion, and illegal logging.
Natural resources include graphite, chromite, coal, rare earth elements, bauxite, and hydropower potential. Land use (2022) is dominated by agriculture (70.3%), with forests (21.3%) and other land (8.4%). Madagascar is a signatory to multiple environmental conventions, notably the Convention on Biological Diversity, UNFCCC, and UNCCD.

Population and Society

As of 2024, Madagascar’s population stands at 29.45 million, with an annual growth rate of 2.18% and a median age of 21.3 years. Demographically, the country is youthful, with a fertility rate of 3.47 children per woman. Approximately 40.6% of inhabitants live in urban areas, and the capital, Antananarivo, hosts nearly 3.9 million residents.
The Malagasy population is ethnically diverse yet unified by language. The dominant groups include the Merina and Betsileo (Austronesian origin) and coastal communities known as Côtiers, of mixed African, Arab, and Austronesian descent. Minor populations include French, Indian, and Comorian communities.
Languages: Malagasy and French are official, while English is used in commerce and tourism.Religion: Approximately 74% of the population is Christian (Catholic and Protestant), with traditional beliefs and Islam forming significant minorities.
Social indicators reflect developmental constraints. Life expectancy averages 68.8 years, infant mortality is 37.5 per 1,000 live births, and maternal mortality is 445 per 100,000. Access to healthcare is limited, with 0.17 physicians per 1,000 people, and only 36% of citizens have improved sanitation. Safe drinking water reaches just 53.5% of the population, primarily in urban areas.
Education remains underfunded, with literacy at 74.7% and a school life expectancy of nine years. Early marriage is widespread (39% of women married before 18). Poverty persists, affecting a majority of households, and 22.6% of children under five are underweight.

Government and Politics

The Republic of Madagascar (Repoblikan’i Madagasikara) operates under a semi-presidential system established by the 2010 Constitution.

• President: Andry Rajoelina (since December 2023)
• Prime Minister: Christian Ntsay (since 2018)
• Capital: Antananarivo

The bicameral Parliament comprises:

• National Assembly (163 seats) – directly elected for five years
• Senate (18 seats) – appointed and indirectly elected

The President, elected by popular vote, serves as head of state, while the Prime Minister, appointed from the parliamentary majority, leads the government.
The legal system blends French civil law and customary norms, administered through the Supreme Court, High Constitutional Court, and High Court of Justice. Madagascar’s six provinces—Antananarivo, Antsiranana, Fianarantsoa, Mahajanga, Toamasina, and Toliara—serve as administrative regions.
Suffrage is universal at 18, with citizenship by descent only. Dual nationality is prohibited. Political pluralism is active but fragmented, represented by parties such as Tiako I Madagasikara (TIM), Isika Rehetra Miaraka amin’i Andry Rajoelina (IRMAR), and Tanora Malagasy Vonona (TGV). Women hold 14.1% of National Assembly seats.

Economy

Madagascar’s economy is low-income and agrarian, yet exhibits growth potential through mining, agriculture, and export manufacturing.

• GDP (PPP, 2024): $52.97 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $1,700
• Real GDP growth: 4.2%
• Inflation: 9.9% (2023)

Economic structure (2024):

• Agriculture: 22.5% – vanilla, coffee, rice, cassava, and cloves
• Industry: 22.8% – textiles, mining (nickel, cobalt, gold), and construction
• Services: 46.4% – trade, transport, and tourism

Madagascar is the world’s largest producer of vanilla, with other major exports including nickel, garments, cloves, and gold. Principal trading partners are the United States, France, Japan, China, and South Korea. Imports, valued at $6 billion, consist mainly of refined petroleum, rice, vehicles, and fabrics.
The national budget (2023) recorded revenues of $2.07 billion against expenditures of $2.88 billion, revealing a persistent fiscal deficit. Tax revenue (9.6% of GDP) remains one of Africa’s lowest. External debt stands at $3.55 billion, and remittances contribute 2.4% of GDP.

Energy and Infrastructure

Electricity coverage is limited to 36.1% of the population, with a stark rural–urban divide (urban 71.6%, rural 10.9%). Installed capacity totals 759,000 kW, sourced from fossil fuels (64.8%), hydropower (31.1%), and solar (3.2%). Energy consumption per capita remains among the lowest globally.
Madagascar holds 150 million tonnes of coal reserves and consumes approximately 20,000 barrels of refined petroleum daily. Renewable initiatives aim to expand solar mini-grids and micro-hydropower in remote areas.

Communications and Transport

Telecommunications infrastructure is underdeveloped but expanding. Mobile penetration reaches 25 million subscriptions (70 per 100 inhabitants), while internet usage remains at 20%. State broadcasters, such as Radio Nationale Malagasy (RNM) and Télévision Malagasy (TVM), coexist with private and community media outlets.
The transport network includes 93 airports (2025), of which 28 have paved runways, and 836 km of railways. Key ports—Toamasina, Mahajanga, and Toliara—facilitate foreign trade. The merchant fleet (29 vessels) supports inter-island commerce and exports.

Defence and Security

The Malagasy Armed Forces comprise the Army, Navy, Air Force, and National Gendarmerie, totalling around 23,000 personnel. Defence expenditure represents 0.7% of GDP. The Gendarmerie maintains rural security, while the National Police oversee urban areas. Military cooperation extends to France, India, and Russia, particularly in maritime security and training.

International Relations, Symbols, and Heritage

Madagascar maintains active membership in the African Union (AU), Southern African Development Community (SADC), Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), United Nations, and World Trade Organization (WTO). Diplomatic ties are well established with France, the United States, China, and regional neighbours.
National symbols include:

• Flag: White (purity), red (sovereignty), and green (hope and the peasantry)
• Anthem: Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô (“O Our Beloved Fatherland”)
• National emblems: The traveller’s palm (ravenala) and zebu

Cultural heritage is showcased through UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as Ambohimanga Royal Hill, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and the Atsinanana Rainforests.