Iran

The Islamic Republic of Iran, historically known as Persia, occupies a central position in the Middle East, bordered by Iraq, Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, with coastlines along the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea, and the Gulf of Oman. It serves as both a geographic and cultural bridge between Asia, the Middle East, and the Caucasus, maintaining a pivotal role in regional and global affairs. With a civilisation spanning over 2,500 years, Iran is one of the world’s oldest continuous cultures. Modern Iran, however, is defined by the 1979 Islamic Revolution, which replaced the monarchy with a theocratic republic, profoundly shaping its political and social landscape.

Historical and Political Background

The story of Iranian civilisation begins with the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE), founded by Cyrus the Great, which became one of the world’s first great empires, notable for its advanced administration and policies of tolerance. The empire’s vastness stretched from the Indus Valley to the Mediterranean. It was succeeded by the Parthian and Sassanid empires, both of which maintained Persia’s prominence until the Arab conquest in the 7th century CE, which introduced Islam and transformed the region’s religious and cultural identity.
Over the centuries, Persian thought, art, and scholarship exerted immense influence on the broader Islamic world. In the 16th century, the Safavid dynasty institutionalised Twelver Shi’a Islam as the state religion, distinguishing Persia from its largely Sunni neighbours. The Qajar dynasty (1794–1925) witnessed a gradual decline, losing territories to Russia and Britain amid growing European influence.
The Pahlavi dynasty, inaugurated by Reza Shah in 1925, sought rapid modernisation, secularisation, and Western alignment. His son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, continued these reforms until the 1979 Islamic Revolution, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which established a theocratic republic governed by Islamic law.
Following the revolution, the Supreme Leader emerged as the most powerful authority, overseeing the military, judiciary, and foreign policy. Relations with the United States deteriorated sharply after the Tehran hostage crisis (1979–1981), when American diplomats were held for 444 days.
The Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) inflicted severe human and economic losses, deepening domestic nationalism and hostility toward the West. Subsequent decades alternated between reformist and conservative administrations: Mohammad Khatami (1997–2005) promoted dialogue and reform; Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005–2013) adopted a confrontational foreign policy; and Hassan Rouhani (2013–2021) negotiated the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), limiting Iran’s nuclear programme in exchange for sanctions relief. The U.S. withdrawal from the JCPOA in 2018 reignited economic strain and international tension.
Under Ebrahim Raisi (2021–2024), Iran strengthened ties with Russia and China but faced widespread protests, notably following the death of Mahsa Amini (2022) in police custody. After Raisi’s death in 2024, Masoud Pezeshkian became president, signalling modest reformist potential within Iran’s rigid political structure.

Geography and Environment

Iran’s territory spans 1,648,195 square kilometres, ranking nineteenth globally. Its landscape is dominated by the Zagros and Elburz Mountains, enclosing vast central deserts, including the Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut. The nation’s highest point, Mount Damavand (5,625 m), is an iconic volcanic peak in the Alborz range.
The climate varies from arid and semi-arid in the interior to subtropical along the Caspian coast. The country’s natural resources—notably petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, copper, and zinc—form the foundation of its economy. Iran’s strategic position on the Strait of Hormuz, through which a large proportion of global oil trade passes, amplifies its geopolitical influence.
However, Iran faces acute environmental challenges, including air pollution, water scarcity, and deforestation. Widespread desertification and unsustainable groundwater use threaten agriculture. In 2023, the nation emitted over 823 million tonnes of CO₂, ranking seventh worldwide.

People and Society

As of 2024, Iran’s population stood at approximately 88.4 million, with an urbanisation rate of 77.3%. The median age is 33.8 years, and the population is growing at 0.88% annually. Life expectancy averages 75.6 years, while the fertility rate is 1.91 children per woman, indicating a stabilising population trend.
Ethnically, Iran is diverse: Persians form the majority, alongside sizeable Azeri, Kurdish, Lur, Arab, Baloch, and Turkmen communities. The official language is Persian (Farsi), with Azeri, Kurdish, Luri, Balochi, Gilaki, and Arabic spoken regionally.
The population is overwhelmingly Muslim (98.5%), predominantly Shi’a, with small minorities of Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Baháʼís.
Literacy rates exceed 86%, supported by a strong educational infrastructure despite economic constraints. Health expenditure accounts for 5.8% of GDP, and Iran maintains near-universal access to clean water and sanitation. Sanctions, however, have disrupted medical imports and healthcare delivery in rural areas.

Government and Politics

The Islamic Republic of Iran is a theocratic republic, blending limited electoral processes with overarching clerical control.

• Supreme Leader: Ayatollah Ali Khamenei (since 1989) holds ultimate authority over national policy, the armed forces, and the judiciary.
• President: Masoud Pezeshkian (since 2024) serves as head of government, overseeing day-to-day administration.
• Legislature: The Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majles) consists of 290 members elected for four-year terms, subject to vetting by the Council of Guardians, a body ensuring conformity with Islamic and constitutional standards.
• Judiciary: Operates under a combination of Sharia (Islamic law) and civil law, with Revolutionary Courts handling political and national security cases.

Key constitutional bodies include:

• Assembly of Experts – clerics responsible for appointing the Supreme Leader.
• Expediency Council – mediates between legislative and clerical authorities.
• Supreme National Security Council – oversees defence and foreign affairs.

Iran’s political system restricts pluralism, and dissent is tightly controlled. Civil liberties, particularly regarding expression, assembly, and women’s rights, are significantly constrained.

Economy

Iran possesses vast energy reserves but faces persistent economic sanctions that constrain its development. The state dominates vital sectors such as oil, gas, and heavy industry, while private enterprise remains limited.
Economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (nominal): $436.9 billion
• GDP (PPP): $1.49 trillion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $16,200
• Growth rate: 3%
• Inflation: 32.5%
• Unemployment: 9.2% (youth 22.8%)
• Public debt: 39.5% of GDP

The economy comprises agriculture (13%), industry (36.4%), and services (47.9%). Oil and gas exports remain dominant, with China, Turkey, India, and Pakistan as key trade partners.
Iran holds the second-largest natural gas and fourth-largest oil reserves in the world. Despite these endowments, sanctions have limited foreign investment and access to global markets. Informal trade routes and barter agreements, particularly with China and Russia, have become vital for economic survival.

Energy and Infrastructure

Iran’s energy infrastructure is extensive:

• Electricity access: 100% of the population
• Installed capacity: 86 million kW (94.6% fossil fuel-based)
• Oil production: 4.1 million barrels per day
• Natural gas production: 265 billion cubic metres annually
• Proven reserves: Oil – 208.6 billion barrels; Gas – 33.9 trillion cubic metres

The Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant generates around 1.6% of electricity. Expansion of nuclear energy continues under strict international oversight amid controversy surrounding uranium enrichment.
Transport infrastructure includes modern highways, railways, and major ports such as Bandar Abbas, while public transportation systems in Tehran and other cities have expanded despite sanctions affecting technology imports.

Military and Security

Iran’s armed forces comprise two main branches:

• Artesh (Regular Military) – responsible for defending national borders.
• Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) – protects the revolution and exerts influence in politics, economy, and foreign policy.

The IRGC’s Quds Force directs extraterritorial operations, supporting groups such as Hezbollah, Hamas, and pro-Iranian militias in Iraq and Syria. Total personnel number around 600,000, including 90,000 Basij paramilitaries. Military expenditure stands at approximately 2% of GDP.

Foreign Relations

Iran exerts considerable influence across Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen through military and political alliances. Its foreign policy opposes U.S. and Israeli influence, aligning instead with Russia, China, and other emerging powers.
Iran is a founding member of OPEC and a participant in BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the United Nations. Ongoing disputes over its nuclear programme and missile development have sustained international sanctions, despite intermittent diplomatic engagement.

Culture and Heritage

Iran’s cultural identity is deeply rooted in Persian traditions that predate Islam, encompassing poetry, architecture, music, and philosophy. The works of poets such as Ferdowsi, Hafez, Rumi, and Saadi continue to define Persian literary heritage.
The country hosts 28 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Persepolis, Golestan Palace, Yazd, and the Lut Desert. Persian art, calligraphy, carpets, and miniature painting exemplify the sophistication of Iranian aesthetics.