Indian Universities Act, 1904

The Indian Universities Act of 1904 was a landmark legislation enacted by the British Government to regulate and restructure the system of higher education in colonial India. The Act was based on the recommendations of the Raleigh Commission (1902) and introduced sweeping changes in the administration, curriculum, and governance of Indian universities. While the British justified the Act as a measure to improve academic standards, it was widely criticised by Indian nationalists for curbing university autonomy and imposing tighter imperial control over education.

Background and Context

By the turn of the 20th century, the higher education system in India had expanded rapidly since the establishment of the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857) and later the Universities of Punjab (1882) and Allahabad (1887). However, these institutions were functioning mainly as examining bodies with little focus on teaching or research.
The British government expressed concern over:

• The declining quality of university education.
• The mushrooming of affiliated colleges with inadequate facilities.
• The lack of uniform academic standards.
• The growing political activism among students and teachers.

In this context, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India (1899–1905), who strongly believed in bureaucratic efficiency and central control, sought to overhaul the university system. To examine the state of Indian universities, he appointed the Indian Universities Commission in January 1902, chaired by Sir Thomas Raleigh. The Commission’s report formed the basis of the Indian Universities Act of 1904, which was passed during Curzon’s administration.

Objectives of the Act

The stated objectives of the Indian Universities Act were to:

• Improve the quality of higher education and raise academic standards.
• Introduce efficient and uniform administration in universities.
• Encourage research and teaching alongside examinations.
• Strengthen government supervision to ensure discipline and order in educational institutions.

However, the underlying motive was to consolidate British control over universities, which had become centres of nationalist thought and political mobilisation.

Salient Features of the Indian Universities Act, 1904

The Act introduced significant structural and administrative changes in the functioning of Indian universities.
1. Reconstitution of University Senates and Syndicates:

• The composition of university governing bodies was altered.
• The number of elected members in the Senate and Syndicate was reduced.
• The government was given power to nominate members, thereby increasing official representation.
• This change effectively placed universities under direct administrative control.

2. Appointment of Vice-Chancellors:

• The Act made the appointment of full-time salaried Vice-Chancellors compulsory.
• The Vice-Chancellor was to be appointed by the government, ensuring official influence over university leadership.

3. Affiliation of Colleges:

• Conditions for college affiliation were made stricter to ensure academic quality.
• Universities could withdraw affiliation from colleges that failed to meet prescribed standards regarding infrastructure, staff, and curriculum.

4. Emphasis on Teaching and Research:

• The Act encouraged universities to develop into teaching institutions rather than mere examining bodies.
• It promoted research activities in science and humanities through improved facilities and funding.

5. Governmental Control and Supervision:

• The Governor-General in Council was empowered to make or amend university regulations.
• The government could inspect universities, review their functioning, and approve all major decisions.
• The universities were required to submit annual reports and budgets for government approval.

6. Creation of Fellowships and Scholarships:

• The Act authorised the universities to grant research fellowships, scholarships, and prizes to promote higher studies.

7. Medium of Instruction and Curriculum:

• Although not directly specified, the Act strengthened the dominance of English as the medium of higher education.
• It reinforced the British model of liberal education while discouraging Indian cultural or nationalist content.

Impact of the Act

The Indian Universities Act had a far-reaching impact on the development of higher education in colonial India. Its consequences were both positive and negative.
Positive Outcomes:

• Improved administrative efficiency and accountability in university governance.
• Better regulation of college affiliation and examination systems.
• Enhanced focus on research and teaching standards.
• Institutionalisation of a more structured university framework across India.

Negative Consequences:

• The Act curtailed academic freedom and reduced university autonomy.
• Increased bureaucratic interference alienated Indian educators and intellectuals.
• It limited democratic participation by reducing elected representation in governing bodies.
• The universities became instruments of colonial control rather than centres of free intellectual pursuit.

Indian Response and Criticism

The Indian reaction to the Act was overwhelmingly critical. Many nationalists viewed it as part of Lord Curzon’s authoritarian and paternalistic educational policy.

• The Indian National Congress (INC) condemned the Act, arguing that it aimed to “enslave education” and suppress nationalist ideas among students.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Surendranath Banerjea denounced the legislation as an attack on educational independence.
• Indian newspapers and public opinion criticised Curzon’s distrust of Indian educators and his effort to turn universities into instruments of imperial policy.
• Student and teacher protests erupted in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, further fuelling nationalist sentiment.

The discontent created by the Act indirectly inspired the rise of national education movements, such as the establishment of the Bengal National College (1906) and later institutions like Visva-Bharati University (1921) founded by Rabindranath Tagore, which sought to promote Indian ideals in education.

Long-Term Significance

Despite its controversial nature, the Indian Universities Act of 1904 had lasting implications for the Indian education system:

• It laid the foundation for modern university governance, introducing formal administrative structures that persist to this day.
• It demonstrated how education could be used as a political instrument by a colonial power.
• The resentment it provoked strengthened educational nationalism, leading to the demand for indigenous control over academic institutions.
• The Act’s shortcomings prompted later reforms, notably the Sadler Commission (1917–19), which recommended greater autonomy and expansion of higher education.

Evaluation of Lord Curzon’s Policy

Lord Curzon believed that universities should serve as disciplined, orderly, and loyal institutions under imperial supervision. His approach reflected a broader philosophy of “benevolent despotism”—seeking progress through control. While his educational reforms did improve organisation and standards, they also suppressed intellectual freedom and provoked political opposition.