Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO)

The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) is a scientific research and monitoring institution responsible for observing, studying, and reporting volcanic and seismic activity in the Hawaiian Islands. Operated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), it plays a critical role in understanding volcanic processes, mitigating hazards, and providing timely warnings to protect life and property. Established in 1912, HVO is one of the oldest volcano observatories in the world and serves as a model for modern volcanic monitoring systems globally.

Historical Background

The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory was founded by the American geologist Thomas A. Jaggar in collaboration with the Hawaiian businessman Lorrin A. Thurston. Jaggar, inspired by devastating eruptions such as that of Mount Pelée in 1902, aimed to create a permanent scientific station for continuous volcano study. With support from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and local donors, HVO began operations at the rim of Kīlauea Volcano on the island of Hawai‘i in 1912.
Initially, the observatory was managed jointly by MIT and the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association. In 1919, its management was transferred to the U.S. Weather Bureau, and later, in 1947, to the U.S. Geological Survey, under which it continues to operate today.
Over the decades, HVO has witnessed and documented numerous eruptions of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa, two of the world’s most active volcanoes. Its continuous data collection has contributed immensely to global understanding of volcanic behaviour, eruption forecasting, and hazard management.

Location and Infrastructure

HVO’s main facilities were historically situated near the summit of Kīlauea within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, providing an ideal vantage point for observing volcanic activity. However, the major 2018 Kīlauea eruption and summit collapse caused extensive damage to the observatory’s buildings. Consequently, HVO relocated temporarily to Hilo and later to new facilities on the University of Hawai‘i at Hilo campus and at the USGS Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center. Plans for constructing a modern observatory building on the island are ongoing.
The observatory operates a network of advanced instruments across the Hawaiian Islands, including seismometers, GPS stations, gas sensors, webcams, tiltmeters, and satellite-linked instruments, enabling real-time data collection and analysis.

Objectives and Functions

The primary objectives of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory are to:

• Monitor volcanic and seismic activity to provide timely warnings of potential hazards.
• Conduct scientific research on volcanic processes, eruption mechanisms, and geophysical phenomena.
• Analyse volcanic gases and deformation to understand magma movement beneath the surface.
• Disseminate information to emergency management agencies, policymakers, and the public.
• Support education and outreach, fostering public awareness of volcanic hazards.

HVO’s operations are essential for forecasting eruptions, issuing hazard alerts, and coordinating responses with state and local authorities such as the Hawai‘i County Civil Defense Agency.

Major Volcanic Events Studied

HVO has played a pivotal role in documenting some of the most important volcanic events in Hawaiian history:

• Kīlauea Eruption (1983–2018): One of the longest-lived eruptions in modern history, producing extensive lava flows that reshaped the island’s landscape and destroyed hundreds of homes.
• Mauna Loa Eruptions: Periodic eruptions, including significant ones in 1950, 1984, and 2022, have been closely monitored by HVO for insights into shield volcano dynamics.
• Kīlauea Summit Collapse (2018): A major geophysical event involving caldera collapse, numerous earthquakes, and emission of vast amounts of gas and ash, providing valuable scientific data.
• Submarine Eruptions and Offshore Seismicity: HVO monitors underwater volcanic activity associated with the Hawaiian hotspot, including eruptions near Lo‘ihi Seamount.

Each of these events has contributed to the refinement of eruption forecasting models and hazard mitigation strategies.

Monitoring Techniques

HVO employs a range of advanced technologies to study and predict volcanic behaviour:

• Seismic Monitoring: Detects earthquake swarms that often precede eruptions.
• Ground Deformation Measurement: GPS and tiltmeters track surface movements caused by magma intrusion.
• Gas Emission Analysis: Instruments measure sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions to estimate magma degassing rates.
• Thermal and Visual Imaging: Webcams and satellite sensors provide continuous visual and thermal data on vents and lava flows.
• Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery assists in mapping lava flow extent, heat anomalies, and ash plumes.

These methods collectively help detect changes in volcanic systems and improve eruption forecasting reliability.

Contributions to Volcanology

The research carried out at HVO has significantly advanced global volcanology. Key scientific contributions include:

• Development of models describing shield volcano formation and magma transport systems.
• Insights into lava flow dynamics, eruption cycles, and summit collapse mechanisms.
• Establishment of methods for real-time volcano monitoring and hazard communication.
• Contributions to international volcano observatory networks, sharing expertise and technology with other volcanic regions.

HVO’s extensive historical dataset is one of the most complete records of active volcanism anywhere in the world, offering valuable long-term insights into the behaviour of hotspot-driven volcanoes.

Public Communication and Education

Public education is a fundamental component of HVO’s mission. The observatory regularly issues Volcano Activity Updates and Hazard Advisories, available online and through media outlets. Scientists also conduct community outreach programmes, educational workshops, and public lectures to increase understanding of volcanic risks.
The USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory website provides real-time maps, seismic data, and eruption status reports accessible to the public, researchers, and emergency responders. This transparency has made HVO a model for effective science communication in hazard management.

Modern Role and Future Outlook

In the 21st century, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory continues to evolve with advances in instrumentation, computing, and remote sensing. Integration with global monitoring systems allows scientists to compare Hawaiian activity with volcanoes worldwide. The 2022 Mauna Loa eruption highlighted HVO’s capacity for rapid hazard assessment, effective coordination, and precise forecasting.
Future plans involve enhancing volcano early-warning systems, expanding satellite data integration, and rebuilding state-of-the-art facilities resilient to natural hazards. HVO’s ongoing research also contributes to broader understanding of planetary volcanism, offering analogues for volcanic processes on other celestial bodies.