Central Treaty Organization

The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), previously known as the Middle East Treaty Organization (METO) and often referred to as the Baghdad Pact, was a Cold War–era military alliance formed in 1955. Designed to contain Soviet influence along the southwestern frontier of the USSR, it united Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and the United Kingdom in a network of political and defence cooperation. Although conceived as a counterpart to NATO, CENTO struggled to achieve strategic cohesion and became regarded as one of the least effective collective security arrangements of the period. Its dissolution in 1979 reflected shifting regional dynamics and the declining relevance of Western-sponsored alliances in the Middle East and South Asia.

Formation and Strategic Purpose

CENTO was founded on 24 February 1955 when Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and the United Kingdom signed a series of agreements that formalised the Baghdad Pact. Bangladesh, at that time East Pakistan, remained indirectly represented until its independence in 1971. The alliance aimed to establish a “Northern Tier” of anti-communist states that could deter potential Soviet expansion into the Middle East. As part of global containment policy, signatories committed themselves to mutual cooperation, non-intervention in each other’s internal affairs and coordinated defence planning.
The United States played a decisive role in encouraging the pact’s creation by offering military and economic support. However, Washington did not immediately join the alliance due to political constraints, domestic lobbying sensitivities and procedural considerations relating to defence budgeting. The US eventually joined the military committee in 1958, effectively shaping CENTO’s strategic environment despite not becoming a full treaty member.
The alliance headquarters were located in Baghdad from 1955 until 1958. Following political changes in Iraq, the seat moved to Ankara where it remained until 1979. Cyprus also became a key location for CENTO’s logistical and intelligence activities owing to substantial British facilities at Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

Political Upheaval and the Withdrawal of Iraq

CENTO suffered a major setback when the Iraqi monarchy fell during the July 1958 revolution. The new republican government adopted a non-aligned stance, restored relations with the Soviet Union and withdrew from the Baghdad Pact. This departure prompted the remaining members to redesignate the alliance as CENTO later that year. Iraq’s absence removed the geographical centre of the Northern Tier and weakened the alliance’s political credibility in the Arab world.

Operational Limitations and Cold War Crises

Although modelled rhetorically on NATO, CENTO lacked a unified military command and did not host extensive American or British bases. The United States relied mainly on intelligence facilities in Iran and aerial reconnaissance conducted from Pakistan. The United Kingdom retained limited access to installations in Pakistan and Iraq.
CENTO’s operational limitations became apparent during regional crises. The alliance refrained from intervening in the Arab–Israeli conflicts of the 1960s and 1970s or in the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. Pakistan, seeking assistance against India, was repeatedly denied support on the grounds that CENTO’s defence commitments applied only to threats from the Soviet Union. This undermined Pakistan’s confidence in the pact and contributed to domestic perceptions that the alliance primarily served Western strategic interests.
Meanwhile, the Soviet Union expanded its influence by cultivating military partnerships with Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Somalia and South Yemen. The establishment of Soviet naval and military facilities in these states called into question CENTO’s capacity to contain regional communist influence. By 1970, thousands of Soviet personnel were stationed in Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East, far outside the alliance’s effective reach.

Challenges in the 1970s and Collapse

The early 1970s further exposed CENTO’s fragility. Bangladesh’s independence in 1971 ended East Pakistan’s participation and weakened Pakistan’s strategic position. The alliance’s inability to respond collectively to Pakistan’s territorial losses reinforced its declining legitimacy.
The 1974 Turkish intervention in Cyprus generated additional tensions. Western sanctions imposed on Turkey, alongside the withdrawal of British forces assigned to CENTO-related roles, contributed to the alliance’s diminishing relevance. Moreover, many earlier justifications for the pact, including the desire to counter Nasserist Arab nationalism, had lost their force as geopolitical alignments in the Middle East shifted.
The decisive factor in CENTO’s demise came with the 1979 Iranian Revolution. The new government withdrew Iran from the alliance on 11 March 1979, removing one of its central pillars. Pakistan withdrew shortly thereafter, and on 16 March 1979 the Secretary-General formally announced the dissolution of CENTO. Subsequent Western defence relations with the region increasingly took the form of bilateral agreements rather than multilateral treaty arrangements.

Membership and Geopolitical Considerations

Membership evolved consistently with regional political changes. Iraq participated from 1955 until its withdrawal in 1959. Iran, Pakistan, Turkey and the United Kingdom remained members until the alliance collapsed in 1979. Turkey, possessing significant geostrategic value due to its location between Europe, the Middle East and the Soviet Union, occupied a position of elevated importance within the pact. Western policymakers hoped Turkish involvement might encourage broader Arab cooperation, particularly from Iraq. Such optimism proved misplaced as Arab nationalist governments increasingly opposed Western-sponsored alliances.

CENTO Railway Project

One of CENTO’s most notable infrastructural projects was the development of a railway connection intended to link London with Tehran via Turkey. Substantial engineering challenges characterised this effort, particularly in the mountainous regions of eastern Turkey and north-western Iran. A key achievement was the Van–Sufian line, partially funded by the United Kingdom, which included a rail ferry across Lake Van and numerous bridges. Among these structures was the Ghotour Bridge, an impressive feat of mid-twentieth-century civil engineering that spanned a deep gorge on the Iranian side. Although never fully realising its intended commercial and strategic objectives, the project reflected CENTO’s ambitions for regional integration.