Caste System in India

The Caste System in India is a traditional social stratification structure that has deeply influenced the subcontinent’s social, cultural, and economic life for over three millennia. Rooted historically in Hindu religious texts and evolving through centuries of socio-political changes, the caste system divided society into hierarchical groups based on occupation, ritual purity, and birth. Though legally abolished in modern India, its legacy continues to shape social interactions, identity, and access to resources even today.

Historical Origins

The origins of the caste system can be traced to the Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE), when early Indo-Aryan society organised itself along occupational and ritual lines. The Rigveda, one of the earliest Sanskrit texts, refers to the Purusha Sukta hymn, which describes the cosmic being (Purusha) from whose body the four main social groups, or Varnas, emerged:

• Brahmins (priests and scholars) – from the mouth of Purusha, responsible for teaching and preserving sacred knowledge.
• Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers) – from the arms, tasked with protection and governance.
• Vaishyas (traders and agriculturists) – from the thighs, engaged in commerce and agriculture.
• Shudras (servants and labourers) – from the feet, serving the other three varnas.

Initially, this varna system was fluid, based more on occupation and aptitude than hereditary status. However, over time, it became rigid and hereditary, with social mobility severely restricted. The concept of ritual purity and pollution reinforced hierarchical segregation, giving rise to a complex web of caste-based norms.

Evolution and Codification

During the Later Vedic and Epic periods (c. 1000–500 BCE), the varna system became more codified. Religious texts such as the Dharmashastras, particularly the Manusmriti, elaborated detailed rules governing the duties, rights, and interactions among castes. These texts legitimised caste hierarchy as a divine and moral order (Dharma), emphasising birth-based social roles and purity.
Parallel to the varna system, a more localised and numerous form of stratification known as Jati developed. Unlike the broader varnas, jatis were endogamous subgroups based on specific occupations and kinship networks. Over centuries, thousands of jatis emerged, forming intricate hierarchies within and across regions.

Caste in Ancient and Medieval India

In ancient India, caste determined nearly every aspect of life—occupation, marriage, diet, and social status. Brahmins enjoyed ritual supremacy, Kshatriyas wielded political power, Vaishyas engaged in trade, while Shudras performed menial labour. Those outside the varna system—known as Avarnas, Chandalas, or Dalits (Untouchables)—were relegated to degrading tasks such as handling dead bodies, leatherwork, or sanitation, and were ostracised from mainstream society.
During the Mauryan period (321–185 BCE), rulers like Ashoka attempted to promote social harmony through Buddhist ideals of equality and compassion, challenging caste exclusivity. Buddhism, Jainism, and later Bhakti movements offered alternatives to Brahmanical orthodoxy, advocating spiritual equality irrespective of caste.
In the medieval period, particularly under Islamic rule (13th–18th centuries), caste distinctions persisted among Hindus but also influenced sections of Indian Muslims through occupational and regional identities. However, Sufi saints and Bhakti reformers such as Kabir, Ravidas, Chaitanya, Tukaram, and Nanak (founder of Sikhism) rejected caste-based discrimination, emphasising devotion, morality, and the oneness of God.

Caste under British Colonial Rule

The British colonial period (18th–20th centuries) profoundly affected the caste system. The British administration, through censuses, legal codes, and land settlements, institutionalised caste as a rigid social category. The Census of India (1871 onward) classified people according to caste, inadvertently reinforcing divisions that had previously been more fluid and localised.
At the same time, British educational and legal reforms, along with the spread of Christian missionary activity and modern professions, began eroding traditional caste occupations. The colonial state also introduced affirmative measures for lower castes in education and employment, particularly under the Government of India Act (1935).
Social reformers such as Jyotirao Phule, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, and B. R. Ambedkar launched movements against caste-based discrimination. Ambedkar, himself a Dalit, emerged as the foremost advocate for social equality, leading campaigns for the rights of “Depressed Classes” and playing a central role in drafting the Constitution of India.

Structure of the Caste System

The caste system was based on three interrelated principles:

1. Hierarchy: Castes were arranged in a vertical order of purity and pollution, with Brahmins at the top and Dalits at the bottom. Higher castes were considered “pure,” while lower castes were regarded as “polluted.”
2. Endogamy: Marriages were strictly confined within one’s own caste or sub-caste, ensuring hereditary continuity.
3. Occupational Specialisation: Each caste traditionally followed specific occupations, such as priesthood for Brahmins, warfare for Kshatriyas, trade for Vaishyas, and service or manual labour for Shudras.
4. Commensality Rules: Restrictions governed food sharing and social interaction between castes, with strict prohibitions on inter-caste dining or contact between higher and lower castes.

These principles maintained a rigid social order, often justified by religious sanction and enforced by local community councils (panchayats).

Regional Variations

Although the caste system originated in Hindu society, it took on diverse regional forms:

• In South India, castes were closely linked to agrarian hierarchies and temple patronage.
• In Eastern India, caste distinctions were historically less pronounced due to tribal and Buddhist influences.
• Among non-Hindu communities, caste-like divisions emerged among Muslims (ashrafs, ajlafs, arzals), Christians, and Sikhs, reflecting the deep social entrenchment of caste practices.

Caste and Modern India

After independence, India’s Constitution (1950), largely authored by Dr B. R. Ambedkar, abolished untouchability and prohibited caste-based discrimination under Article 17. The state introduced extensive affirmative action policies to uplift historically disadvantaged groups:

• Scheduled Castes (SCs)
• Scheduled Tribes (STs)
• Other Backward Classes (OBCs)

These policies include reservations in education, employment, and political representation, aiming to reduce socio-economic inequality. The Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955) and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (1989) further criminalised caste-based violence and discrimination.
Despite these legal safeguards, caste continues to influence various spheres of Indian life, including:

• Politics: Caste-based voting and mobilisation remain integral to India’s democratic system, with political parties aligning themselves with specific caste groups.
• Economy: Occupational mobility has increased, but caste-based inequalities in land ownership, income, and education persist.
• Marriage and Social Relations: Endogamy remains widespread, with most marriages still occurring within caste boundaries.
• Rural Hierarchies: In many villages, caste determines access to land, water, and social status.

Reform Movements and Social Change

Several reform movements have challenged caste orthodoxy and worked toward social equality:

• Bhakti and Sufi Movements (14th–17th centuries): Promoted the idea of equality and rejected ritual hierarchy.
• Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy): Advocated rationalism and monotheism.
• Arya Samaj (founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati): Urged the abolition of caste discrimination and the upliftment of lower castes.
• Satya Shodhak Samaj (founded by Jyotirao Phule): Emphasised social justice and education for lower castes and women.
• Dalit Movement (20th century onwards): Led by Ambedkar, it sought political empowerment, social dignity, and the rejection of caste Hinduism.

Post-independence leaders and organisations such as Periyar E. V. Ramasamy in Tamil Nadu and the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in North India have further advanced the cause of social justice and caste equality.

Contemporary Perspectives

In modern India, caste identity has evolved from a purely social hierarchy to a politico-economic identity. While urbanisation, education, and industrialisation have weakened traditional caste barriers, caste-based discrimination and violence persist, particularly in rural areas. The reservation system, though criticised for fostering dependency and political misuse, has also empowered many marginalised communities.
Caste now functions both as a tool of exclusion and a basis for political assertion. The rise of Dalit and backward-caste movements demonstrates a shift from passive acceptance to active resistance and redefinition of social identity.

Global and Diasporic Dimensions

The Indian caste system has extended its influence beyond India through migration. Indian communities in the Caribbean, Africa, the United Kingdom, and North America have carried caste-based social patterns, though these have often transformed under new socio-economic conditions. Recent global discussions, particularly in Western academia and human rights circles, have recognised caste discrimination as a form of social exclusion comparable to racial discrimination.