Akbar, the Great

Akbar the Great (1542–1605), born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, was the third and most illustrious ruler of the Mughal Empire in India. His reign (1556–1605) marked the height of Mughal power, territorial expansion, and cultural synthesis. Akbar’s remarkable achievements in administration, religious tolerance, art, and architecture laid the foundation of one of the most stable and prosperous empires in Indian history. His visionary policies earned him the title “Akbar the Great”, symbolising both political genius and humane governance.

Early Life and Accession

Akbar was born on 15 October 1542 at Umarkot, Sindh (present-day Pakistan), while his father, Humayun, was in exile after losing the Mughal throne to Sher Shah Suri. During his early years, Akbar was raised in Kabul under the care of his uncle, Askari Mirza, and later under the guidance of Bairam Khan, a loyal officer of Humayun.
After Humayun regained Delhi in 1555, the Mughal Empire briefly re-established itself, but Humayun’s accidental death in 1556 left the young Akbar, only 13 years old, as emperor. His early reign was guided by Bairam Khan, who served as regent and consolidated Mughal authority. The decisive Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu, the general of the Afghan ruler Adil Shah, restored Mughal dominance in North India.

Consolidation of the Empire

Once Akbar assumed full control of the government in 1560, he embarked on a series of campaigns to expand and stabilise the empire. His military conquests combined strategic brilliance with diplomatic foresight.
Major Conquests and Expansion:

• Malwa (1561): Conquered under General Adham Khan.
• Gujarat (1572–73): Secured control over western trade routes; commemorated by constructing the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Bengal (1574–76): Annexed after defeating local Afghan rulers.
• Rajasthan (1567–1580): Rajput states such as Chittor, Ranthambore, and Jodhpur were subdued, though many Rajput rulers like Raja Man Singh and Raja Bhagwan Das accepted Mughal suzerainty through alliance and diplomacy.
• Kashmir, Sindh, and Kabul: Brought under Mughal control during the later years of his reign.
• Deccan Expeditions: Began campaigns in the Deccan against Ahmadnagar and Khandesh, laying the foundation for later Mughal expansion under his successors.

By the end of his reign, Akbar’s empire extended from the Himalayas to the Godavari and from Afghanistan to Bengal, encompassing nearly all of northern and central India.

Administrative Reforms

Akbar’s administration was a model of efficiency, centralisation, and inclusiveness. His governance combined Persian imperial traditions with Indian administrative practices, creating a system that endured for centuries.
1. Central Administration: The empire was divided into provinces called Subahs, each headed by a Subahdar (Governor). The central government comprised four main departments:

• Wazir (Finance/Revenue) – managed by Raja Todar Mal.
• Mir Bakshi (Military/Paymaster) – oversaw the army.
• Sadr-us-Sudur (Religious and Judicial) – supervised religious endowments.
• Mir Saman (Imperial Household) – administered royal affairs.

2. Mansabdari System: Introduced around 1577, the Mansabdari system was Akbar’s hallmark administrative reform. It classified officials (mansabdars) according to rank (zat) and horsemen (sawar), ensuring merit-based service and loyalty to the emperor.
3. Revenue System: Reform of land revenue, the empire’s financial backbone, was carried out by Raja Todar Mal through the Dahsala system (1580), which standardised land assessment and taxation. Revenue was fixed at one-third of the average produce value, payable in cash or kind.
4. Judicial and Law System: While Islamic law remained the foundation, Akbar ensured fairness by appointing both Muslim and Hindu judges in his courts. His justice system emphasised equity over orthodoxy.

Religious Policy and Tolerance

Akbar’s most celebrated achievement was his policy of religious tolerance and efforts toward interfaith harmony. Recognising India’s diverse religious landscape, he sought to create an environment of mutual respect among communities.
Key Measures:

• Abolition of Jizya (1564): Removed the poll tax imposed on non-Muslims.
• Abolition of Pilgrimage Tax: Promoted religious freedom.
• Interfaith Dialogues: Established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri (1575), where scholars of Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity debated theological ideas.
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582): A syncretic faith introduced by Akbar blending ethical principles of major religions—emphasising peace, tolerance, and devotion to the emperor as the spiritual guide. Though not a mass religion, it symbolised Akbar’s vision of universal brotherhood.
• Marriage Alliances: His matrimonial alliances with Rajput princesses strengthened Hindu-Muslim relations and political stability.

These policies made Akbar one of the most enlightened monarchs in Indian history and a forerunner of secular governance.

Cultural and Intellectual Achievements

Akbar’s reign witnessed a cultural renaissance, blending Persian, Central Asian, and Indian traditions into a distinct Mughal synthesis.
1. Art and Architecture:

• Founded Fatehpur Sikri near Agra, his capital from 1571 to 1585, showcasing Indo-Islamic architectural brilliance.
• Built masterpieces such as Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Panch Mahal, and Diwan-i-Khas.
• Encouraged Persian miniature painting; the Mughal School of Painting flourished under artists like Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali.

2. Literature:

• Patronised scholars and poets such as Abul Fazl, Faizi, and Tansen.
• Commissioned the Persian translation of major Sanskrit works, including the Mahabharata (Razmnama) and Ramayana.
• Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari remain invaluable sources for understanding Akbar’s administration and ideology.

3. Music:

• Akbar was a patron of Indian classical music. The legendary musician Tansen served in his court, enriching Hindustani musical traditions.

Akbar’s Personality and Leadership

Akbar’s leadership was marked by intelligence, pragmatism, and vision. Though illiterate, he possessed an exceptional memory and keen intellect. His open-mindedness and curiosity drove his engagement with diverse cultures, religions, and philosophies.
He was also a strategic diplomat and reformer, balancing military power with humane governance. His respect for merit over birth allowed the rise of talented individuals like Birbal, Man Singh, and Todar Mal, who became pillars of his administration.

Decline and Death

In his later years, Akbar faced challenges such as Prince Salim’s (later Jahangir) rebellion and revolts in the Deccan. Nonetheless, he maintained stability through his administrative and diplomatic skills.
Akbar died on 27 October 1605 at Agra and was buried at Sikandra, near Agra, in a magnificent mausoleum that reflects his architectural taste and grandeur.

Legacy

Akbar’s legacy transcends his military conquests and administrative efficiency. He is remembered as:

• The Architect of the Mughal Empire: Consolidated and unified a vast and diverse empire under strong central authority.
• A Pioneer of Religious Tolerance: His policies of Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Peace) promoted harmony among faiths.
• A Patron of Culture: Fostered one of the most vibrant periods of art, architecture, and literature in Indian history.
• A Visionary Ruler: His policies reflected rationalism, meritocracy, and inclusiveness rarely seen in pre-modern governance.