Ukraine

The Republic of Ukraine, situated at the heart of Eastern Europe, is the continent’s second-largest country after Russia and a pivotal player in regional politics, culture, and agriculture. Often referred to as the “breadbasket of Europe”, Ukraine’s fertile lands and strategic location have long made it a crossroads of civilisations and empires. Since gaining independence in 1991, the nation has pursued democracy, market reform, and closer integration with Western institutions, notably the European Union (EU) and NATO, while confronting persistent challenges of territorial integrity and conflict with Russia.

Historical background and early statehood

Ukraine’s statehood has ancient origins rooted in Kyivan Rus’, a powerful medieval federation founded in the 9th century and centred on Kyiv. At its height in the 10th–11th centuries, Kyivan Rus’ was a major political and cultural force in Europe, influencing religion, trade, and law across the Slavic world. The Christianisation of Kyivan Rus’ under Prince Volodymyr the Great in 988 introduced Eastern Orthodoxy, shaping Ukraine’s spiritual and cultural identity for centuries.
By the 13th century, Mongol invasions fragmented the region, and Ukraine’s lands came under competing powers—the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Western institutions such as the Magdeburg Law and Latin education influenced governance and urban life, while the Orthodox Church safeguarded national consciousness.
In the mid-17th century, Bohdan Khmelnytsky’s Cossack uprising against Polish rule led to the creation of the Cossack Hetmanate, an autonomous state renowned for its military strength and self-rule traditions. Over time, however, it fell under increasing Muscovite (Russian) control. By the late 18th century, the Russian Empire annexed most Ukrainian lands, while Austro-Hungary absorbed the western regions of Galicia and Bukovina, creating enduring cultural and political distinctions.

Twentieth-century struggles and independence

The collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 created an opening for Ukrainian independence. The Ukrainian People’s Republic (1917–1920) briefly existed before being reabsorbed into Soviet rule. Under the USSR, Ukraine endured some of its darkest periods—most notably the Holodomor (1932–1933), a man-made famine caused by Stalin’s collectivisation policies that killed millions.
During the Second World War, Ukraine was a principal battleground between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, resulting in catastrophic human and material losses—between seven and eight million lives. After 1945, Soviet reconstruction turned Ukraine into an industrial hub but repressed political freedom and national culture. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster (1986) exposed deep flaws in Soviet governance and became a catalyst for reformist sentiment.
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine declared independence, endorsed by over 90% of voters in a national referendum. The newly independent state adopted a semi-presidential system, with Kyiv reaffirmed as its capital.

Political evolution and reform movements

Post-independence Ukraine’s political trajectory has been shaped by alternating waves of reform and crisis. The Orange Revolution (2004–2005), sparked by electoral fraud, brought Viktor Yushchenko to power amid hopes for democratic renewal. Yet factionalism and slow progress weakened reform momentum.
Viktor Yanukovych’s presidency (2010–2014) tilted Ukraine toward Russia, culminating in his rejection of an EU Association Agreement in late 2013. This decision ignited the Euromaidan protests, a nationwide uprising demanding democracy and European integration. Violent clashes led to Yanukovych’s ousting in February 2014, followed by Russia’s annexation of Crimea and support for separatists in eastern Ukraine.
Pro-Western leader Petro Poroshenko steered the country through early conflict years until 2019, when Volodymyr Zelenskyy, a political newcomer and former actor, won a landslide election. His government prioritised anti-corruption reforms and digital transformation, notably through the Diia e-government platform.
In February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion, plunging Ukraine into its gravest crisis since independence. Despite severe territorial losses and humanitarian devastation, Ukraine’s defence forces and population displayed extraordinary resilience, repelling attacks on Kyiv, reclaiming large swaths of occupied territory, and strengthening national unity.

Geography and environment

Ukraine spans 603,550 square kilometres, bordered by Russia, Belarus, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Moldova, with 2,782 km of coastline along the Black Sea and Sea of Azov. The Carpathian Mountains rise in the west, while the Crimean Peninsula, annexed by Russia in 2014, lies to the south.
The country’s terrain is dominated by fertile plains and steppes, watered by major rivers such as the Dnipro, Dniester, and Danube. Ukraine’s temperate continental climate supports its vast agricultural output, and its mineral wealth includes iron ore, coal, natural gas, manganese, and oil. Over 70% of the land is arable, sustaining major exports of wheat, maize, and sunflower oil.
Environmental issues—air pollution, deforestation, soil degradation, and radioactive contamination—pose persistent challenges. Ukraine is a signatory to the Paris Climate Accord and is expanding its renewable energy sector, particularly wind and solar power.

People, culture, and society

As of 2024, Ukraine’s population is approximately 35.7 million, reflecting war-related displacement and emigration. Ethnic Ukrainians constitute 77.8%, with minorities including Russians, Belarusians, Crimean Tatars, and Moldovans.
Language: Ukrainian (official), with Russian widely spoken, especially in eastern and urban areas.Religion: Predominantly Orthodox Christian, divided among the Orthodox Church of Ukraine (OCU), the Ukrainian Orthodox–Moscow Patriarchate, and smaller autocephalous churches. The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church is influential in the west. Minor communities of Roman Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Jews contribute to religious diversity.
Demographic indicators (2024):

• Median age: 44.9 years
• Life expectancy: 70.5 years
• Fertility rate: 1.22 children per woman
• Urbanisation: 70%
• Literacy: 100%
• Education expenditure: 5.9% of GDP

Ukraine’s urban centres—Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odesa, Dnipro, and Lviv—serve as cultural and economic hubs. Despite the strains of war, civil society remains vibrant, with active volunteer networks, free media, and dynamic cultural institutions.

Political structure and governance

Ukraine operates as a semi-presidential republic under the 1996 Constitution, balancing executive and legislative powers.

• President: Volodymyr Zelenskyy (since 2019)
• Prime Minister: Yulia Svyrydenko (since 2025)
• Parliament (Verkhovna Rada): 450 members elected for five-year terms through a mixed electoral system
• Judiciary: Supreme Court, Constitutional Court, and High Anti-Corruption Court

Ukraine’s national symbols express unity and resilience. The flag, with blue and yellow horizontal bands, represents the sky over wheat fields; the tryzub (trident) symbolises sovereignty, and the anthem “Shche ne vmerla Ukraina” (“Ukraine Has Not Yet Perished”) embodies national perseverance.
Ukraine is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Saint Sophia Cathedral, the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra, and the Historic Centre of Lviv, showcasing its deep cultural heritage.

Economy and development

Ukraine’s economy, classified as lower-middle income, has suffered immense wartime losses but remains resilient. After a 30% GDP contraction in 2022, modest recovery began, reaching 2.9% growth in 2024.
Economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $577.6 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $16,100
• Inflation: 6.5%
• Key sectors: Agriculture (7.1%), Industry (19%), Services (60.6%)
• Main exports: Corn, wheat, sunflower oil, machinery, and metals
• Main partners: EU, Poland, Romania, China, Turkey

Ukraine’s economic stabilisation relies on international aid, remittances (6.3% of GDP), and reconstruction funding. The hryvnia (UAH) operates on a managed float, supported by foreign reserves exceeding $43 billion. Reconstruction strategies emphasise digital governance, infrastructure rebuilding, and energy diversification.

Defence, foreign relations, and international standing

The Armed Forces of Ukraine (Zbroyni Syly Ukrayiny) comprise Ground, Air, and Naval Forces, as well as Territorial Defence units. Since 2022, national mobilisation has expanded the armed forces to nearly one million personnel, supported by advanced NATO-standard weaponry and extensive Western aid. Defence expenditure exceeds 30% of GDP, reflecting wartime necessity.
Ukraine maintains close diplomatic alignment with Western allies, seeking full EU membership and eventual NATO accession. It participates in major international organisations, including the United Nations, OSCE, IMF, WTO, and Council of Europe.