Turkmenistan

Situated in Central Asia, Turkmenistan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest, and the Caspian Sea to the west. Though geographically landlocked, its western shoreline offers access to regional maritime trade. Once a flourishing centre along the Silk Road, Turkmenistan today is an authoritarian presidential republic whose economy is dominated by natural gas exports. Its strategic position at the crossroads of Eurasia has profoundly influenced its history, culture, and political evolution.

Historical Background

The territory of modern Turkmenistan has been inhabited since prehistoric times and has formed part of successive civilisations and empires. In antiquity, it lay within the orbit of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, later falling under the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. The region subsequently became a component of the Seleucid and Parthian Empires, developing as a hub of commerce and Hellenistic influence.
The arrival of Islam in the 7th century CE following Arab expansion integrated Turkmen territories into the Islamic world, fostering the spread of Arabic scholarship and trade. During the Abbasid and Seljuk eras, the area prospered culturally and economically. The city of Merv, located in present-day Mary Province, became one of the leading centres of Islamic civilisation, famed for its libraries, scholars, and role as a key Silk Road city linking Persia, India, and China.
The Mongol invasions of the 13th century brought destruction to Central Asia, after which Turkic nomadic tribes consolidated dominance over the steppes. The ethnonym “Turkmen” is generally understood to mean “Turk-like people,” reflecting both ethnic and linguistic continuity with wider Turkic groups.
By the late 19th century, the Russian Empire annexed the region during its expansion into Central Asia, culminating in the defeat of Turkmen forces at Geok Tepe (1881). Following the Russian Revolution (1917), the territory saw anti-Bolshevik resistance before being incorporated into the Soviet Union as the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924.
On 27 October 1991, Turkmenistan declared independence amid the USSR’s dissolution. Saparmurat Niyazov, the country’s first president, established an autocratic state marked by an elaborate personality cult and self-designation as “President for Life.” After his death in 2006, Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov assumed power, continuing strict political control but introducing limited economic and infrastructural reforms.
In 2022, his son Serdar Berdymukhamedov succeeded him as president after a tightly managed election, consolidating dynastic rule. The elder Berdymukhamedov retained considerable influence as Head of the Halk Maslahaty (People’s Council) and National Leader of the Turkmen People, formalising hereditary political authority within the ruling family.

Geography and Environment

Turkmenistan spans 488,100 square kilometres, making it slightly larger than California. The country is predominantly covered by the Karakum (Garagum) Desert, which occupies nearly 80% of its territory. Its Caspian Sea coastline extends 1,768 kilometres, and although the Caspian is enclosed, it supports limited maritime trade through the port of Turkmenbashi.
Geographic coordinates: 40° N, 60° EHighest point: Gora Ayribaba (3,139 m)Lowest point: Vpadina Akchanaya (–81 m)Climate: subtropical desert—hot summers, mild winters
Turkmenistan is exceptionally rich in natural gas, holding over 11 trillion cubic metres of proven reserves, as well as deposits of petroleum, salt, and sulphur. The Amu Darya River forms part of its northeastern boundary, while the Karakum Canal, one of the world’s largest irrigation systems, distributes river water across arid regions for agriculture. However, inefficient irrigation has led to salinisation, soil erosion, and desertification.
Although 84% of the land is designated as agricultural, much of it relies on cotton monoculture sustained by irrigation. Environmental degradation, water scarcity, and pollution of the Caspian Sea remain persistent issues. Government initiatives include reforestation projects and water management programmes, but long-term ecological sustainability remains uncertain.

People and Society

The population of Turkmenistan is estimated at 5.74 million (2024), with roughly 54% residing in urban areas, primarily in and around the capital, Ashgabat.
Ethnic composition:

• Turkmen: 85%
• Uzbek: 5%
• Russian: 4%
• Other minorities: 6%

Languages:

• Turkmen (official): spoken by about 72% of the population
• Russian: widely used in business and inter-ethnic communication
• Uzbek and other minority languages remain regionally significant

Religious affiliation:

• Muslim (predominantly Sunni): 93%
• Christian (Eastern Orthodox and others): 6.4%
• Other faiths: <1%

Key demographic indicators (2024):

• Median age: 31.2 years
• Life expectancy: 72.4 years
• Fertility rate: 2.02 children per woman
• Literacy: 99.6%
• Urbanisation rate: 2.2% per year

Turkmenistan has achieved universal access to drinking water and sanitation (100%), while maternal mortality is low at 5 deaths per 100,000 births. However, infant mortality remains high at 35.9 deaths per 1,000 live births. The country’s population growth has slowed due to emigration, particularly to Turkey and Russia, driven by economic stagnation and limited personal freedoms.

Government and Politics

Turkmenistan is an authoritarian presidential republic dominated by the Berdymukhamedov family.
Official name: TurkmenistanCapital: Ashgabat (Ashkhabad)Independence: 27 October 1991
Executive branch:

• President: Serdar Berdymukhamedov (since March 2022)
• National Leader: Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov (title created 2023)

The president serves as both head of state and government, exercising wide powers including control over appointments, legislation, and the judiciary. There are no effective term limits, and political opposition is non-existent.
Legislature: The Mejlis (National Assembly) is unicameral, comprising 125 members elected for five-year terms. Although multiple parties exist—such as the Democratic Party, Agrarian Party, and Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs—all support the ruling administration, rendering political pluralism nominal.
Judiciary: The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority, but courts lack independence, with judges appointed by presidential decree for renewable five-year terms.
Administrative divisions:

• Ahal (Arkadag)
• Balkan (Balkanabat)
• Dashoguz
• Lebap (Turkmenabat)
• Mary
• Ashgabat (independent city)

The national flag—green with a vertical red stripe of carpet motifs, a crescent, and five stars—symbolises heritage, unity, and Islam. The Akhal-Teke horse, famed for its endurance and beauty, serves as the national emblem, while the anthem “Garaşsyz, Bitarap Türkmenistanyň” expresses themes of independence and neutrality.

Economy

Turkmenistan’s economy is classified as upper-middle income, heavily state-controlled, and reliant on natural gas exports. The country holds nearly 10% of global gas reserves, with primary export destinations including China, Russia, and Turkey.
Key indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $134.5 billion
• GDP (official exchange rate): $64.2 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $18,000
• Growth rate: 2.3%
• Inflation: 11.5%
• Unemployment: 4.4%

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 11.3%
• Industry: 39.3%
• Services: 49.4%

Trade profile: Main exports include natural gas, crude oil, refined petroleum, fertilisers, and electricity.Main imports consist of machinery, vehicles, computer equipment, and consumer goods.Key trade partners are China (63%), Turkey (11%), Greece (7%), and Uzbekistan (6%).
Despite its resource wealth, Turkmenistan faces income inequality, currency restrictions, and limited foreign investment due to opaque regulations and political isolation.
Energy sector:

• Gas production: 84.3 billion m³ (2023)
• Proven reserves: 11.3 trillion m³
• Oil production: 272,000 barrels per day
• Electricity generation: 100% fossil fuel-based

Pipeline networks link Turkmenistan with China (Central Asia–China Gas Pipeline) and Iran, while the proposed TAPI (Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India) project remains under development.

Defence and Security

The Armed Forces of Turkmenistan number approximately 35,000 active personnel, encompassing the Ground Forces, Air Force, and Navy. The Ministry of Internal Affairs oversees the National Police, Border Guard Service, and Internal Troops.
Military service: compulsory for men aged 18–27 (24 months); voluntary for women.Defence expenditure: about 1.9% of GDP.
Turkmenistan adheres to a constitutional policy of permanent neutrality, recognised by the United Nations in 1995. While abstaining from military alliances, it maintains limited cooperation with Russia, Uzbekistan, and NATO’s Partnership for Peace framework.

Environment and Climate

The nation experiences a subtropical desert climate with extreme temperature fluctuations and minimal rainfall. Key environmental issues include soil salinisation, groundwater pollution, and Caspian Sea contamination. Irrigation from the Amu Darya and Karakum Canal has led to widespread water inefficiency and land degradation.
Turkmenistan emits over 106 million tonnes of CO₂ annually, ranking among the world’s highest per capita emitters due to gas flaring and energy waste. Although the government has signed international environmental accords, renewable energy development remains negligible.

Culture and Society

Turkmen culture represents a fusion of Turkic, Persian, and Islamic traditions, retaining strong tribal and nomadic influences. Carpet weaving—employing distinctive guls (tribal motifs)—remains a defining art form, symbolised on the national flag.
Traditional music, equestrian festivals featuring the Akhal-Teke horse, and Nowruz (Persian New Year) celebrations embody Turkmen cultural life. Government cultural policy promotes patriotism and reverence for national leadership, aligning with the broader ideology of state loyalty.