Third Anglo-Maratha War

The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) marked the final and decisive conflict between the British East India Company and the Maratha Confederacy, resulting in the complete downfall of Maratha power and the establishment of British supremacy over almost the entire Indian subcontinent. This war ended more than a century of Maratha political dominance and paved the way for the consolidation of British rule in India under the Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings.

Background and Causes

The roots of the Third Anglo-Maratha War lay in the deteriorating relations between the British and the Maratha states following the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805). The earlier conflict had significantly weakened the Marathas, leading to the signing of subsidiary alliances with the British. However, the Maratha chiefs remained resentful of British interference in their internal affairs and harboured ambitions to regain lost territories and prestige.
The major causes of the conflict can be summarised as follows:

1. Decline of the Maratha Confederacy:
   • By the early nineteenth century, the once-powerful Maratha Confederacy had become a loose alliance of five principal states — Peshwa (Poona), Scindia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Gaekwad (Baroda), and Bhonsle (Nagpur) — each pursuing its own interests.
   • Rivalries among these chiefs weakened their unity and made them vulnerable to British manipulation.
2. British Policy of Expansion:
   • Under Lord Hastings (1813–1823), the British East India Company pursued an assertive expansionist policy aimed at establishing complete political control over India.
   • The Company sought to eliminate all remaining centres of Indian sovereignty that could challenge its authority.
3. Peshwa’s Discontent and Loss of Prestige:
   • Baji Rao II, the Peshwa, had been reinstated on the throne of Poona after the Second Anglo-Maratha War but remained under British protection as per the Treaty of Bassein (1802).
   • The treaty effectively reduced him to a British dependency, causing deep humiliation among the Maratha nobility.
4. Formation of Anti-British Sentiment:
   • Growing resentment over British interference in Maratha affairs and the annexation of territories such as Bundelkhand and Orissa fostered anti-British sentiment.
   • Secret negotiations among the Maratha chiefs reflected a shared desire to overthrow British dominance.
5. Immediate Provocation – The Poona Uprising (1817):
   • The British Resident at Poona, Mountstuart Elphinstone, had established a large cantonment near the Peshwa’s palace.
   • In November 1817, Baji Rao II, provoked by the increasing assertiveness of the British, attacked the British Residency, leading to open hostilities.
   • This event marked the beginning of the Third Anglo-Maratha War.

Course of the War

The war, fought between 1817 and 1818, was widespread and involved multiple theatres of operation across western and central India. The British forces, under the leadership of Lord Hastings and several senior generals, launched coordinated campaigns against the Maratha rulers.
1. Battle against the Peshwa (Poona):

• In November 1817, the Peshwa’s forces attacked the British Residency at Poona but were decisively defeated at the Battle of Khadki (Kirkee) on 5 November 1817.
• The British, led by Colonel Burr, displayed superior discipline and firepower, forcing Baji Rao to flee first to Satara and later towards the northern Deccan.
• Subsequent battles at Korgaon (January 1818) and Ashti (February 1818) further weakened the Peshwa’s army.

2. Campaign against the Bhonsle of Nagpur:

• The Bhonsle ruler, Appa Sahib (Raghuji II’s successor), joined the anti-British alliance and attacked the British Residency at Nagpur.
• He was defeated by British forces under Colonel Adams at the Battle of Sitabaldi (November 1817).
• After a second defeat near Nagpur, Appa Sahib surrendered but later escaped and continued resistance in the jungles until his eventual capture.

3. Campaign against the Holkars (Indore):

• The Holkar army, led by Malhar Rao Holkar II, confronted the British near Mahidpur.
• The decisive Battle of Mahidpur (21 December 1817) resulted in a crushing defeat for the Holkars.
• Following this, the Treaty of Mandsaur (January 1818) was concluded, bringing Holkar’s territories under British control and forcing him to accept the subsidiary alliance system.

4. Campaign against Scindia of Gwalior:

• Daulat Rao Scindia, learning from the defeats of his counterparts, refrained from engaging in direct conflict.
• He signed a subsidiary alliance with the British, accepting their paramountcy and maintaining control over his internal administration.

5. Fall of the Peshwa and End of the War:

• The British pursued Baji Rao relentlessly. His forces suffered successive defeats at Ashti, Pandharpur, and Kopgaon.
• Finally, on 3 June 1818, Baji Rao II surrendered to the British near Ashti.
• The British abolished the Peshwaship, exiled Baji Rao II to Bithoor near Kanpur, and granted him an annual pension of ₹8 lakh.

Major Treaties and Settlements

• Treaty of Mandsaur (1818): Signed with Holkar, confirming British control and introducing the subsidiary alliance.
• Treaty with Scindia (1817): Bound Gwalior to British interests, preventing him from supporting other Maratha chiefs.
• Annexation of Peshwa’s Territories: The lands under the Peshwa’s control were annexed and integrated into the Bombay Presidency.
• Creation of the Satara State: The British reinstated the descendant of Shivaji, Pratap Singh, as the nominal ruler of Satara to maintain symbolic continuity, though under British supervision.

Results and Consequences

The Third Anglo-Maratha War had profound and far-reaching consequences for Indian history:
1. End of Maratha Power:

• The war marked the final collapse of the Maratha Confederacy, which had dominated Indian politics for over a century.
• The Marathas ceased to exist as an independent political force, and their territories came under British control.

2. Expansion of British Territory:

• Large parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Central India were annexed, substantially increasing British territorial possessions.
• The region around Poona, including fertile lands and trade routes, became part of the Bombay Presidency.

3. Establishment of British Paramountcy:

• The war completed the British conquest of India. After 1818, there was no major indigenous power left to challenge British dominance.
• The East India Company emerged as the paramount authority over the Indian subcontinent.

4. Reorganisation of Administration:

• British administrative systems replaced the traditional Maratha polity. The abolition of the Peshwaship marked the end of the Maratha Confederacy’s political framework.
• New provinces, residencies, and princely states (like Satara) were created under British supervision.

5. Social and Political Impact:

• Many Maratha nobles and soldiers joined British service, while others turned to local resistance or banditry (Pindari activity).
• The disappearance of the Marathas from power created a political vacuum, later exploited by reformers and regional leaders under colonial rule.

6. British Military and Diplomatic Supremacy:

• The war demonstrated the superiority of British military strategy, organisation, and diplomacy.
• The use of alliances, combined arms, and rapid mobility enabled the British to defeat a fragmented yet traditionally formidable enemy.

Significance

The Third Anglo-Maratha War was not merely a military event but a turning point in Indian colonial history. It symbolised:

• The end of indigenous resistance to British expansion in India.
• The beginning of the British imperial era, where the East India Company transitioned from a commercial power to a sovereign authority.
• The political unification of India under British paramountcy, which, although achieved through conquest, laid the groundwork for a centralised colonial administration.