Thailand

The Kingdom of Thailand, known locally as Ratcha Anachak Thai and historically as Siam, is a constitutional monarchy located in mainland Southeast Asia. Strategically positioned between Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia, Thailand has coastlines along both the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, making it a vital regional crossroads for trade and culture. As the only Southeast Asian nation never colonised by a Western power, Thailand has preserved its sovereignty while embracing modernisation and global integration.

Historical background

The roots of the Thai nation trace back to the 13th century, when the Sukhothai Kingdom emerged in the central plains after gaining independence from the Khmer Empire. Sukhothai, often regarded as the first Thai state, established key elements of Thai political and cultural identity, including Theravada Buddhism as the dominant religion. Simultaneously, the Lan Na Kingdom flourished in the north with its capital at Chiang Mai.
The Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351–1767) succeeded Sukhothai and became a powerful regional empire controlling much of present-day Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and the Malay Peninsula. Following Ayutthaya’s destruction by Burma in 1767, King Taksin reunified the territory, paving the way for the Chakri Dynasty. In 1782, King Rama I, founder of the dynasty, established the new capital at Bangkok (Rattanakosin).
During the 19th century, Siam underwent modernisation under Kings Mongkut (Rama IV) and Chulalongkorn (Rama V). Through diplomacy and administrative reforms, they maintained independence amid European imperial expansion, though Siam ceded territories in Laos, Cambodia, and Malaya to Britain and France through unequal treaties.
A bloodless revolution in 1932 ended absolute monarchy and introduced a constitutional system. The country adopted the name Thailand in 1939, meaning “Land of the Free.” During the Second World War, Thailand aligned with Japan but later joined the Allied cause. In the Cold War era, it became a key United States ally and hosted American bases during the Vietnam War.
Thailand’s post-war politics have alternated between military and civilian rule, marked by frequent coups, judicial interventions, and populist movements. The 2006 and 2014 coups brought military-backed governments to power, the latter led by Gen. Prayut Chan-o-cha, who ruled until 2023. Following the 2023 elections, Srettha Thavisin of the Pheu Thai Party became prime minister, later succeeded in 2025 by Anutin Charnvirakul, leader of the Bhumjaithai Party, after a coalition reshuffle.

Geography and environment

Thailand spans 513,120 square kilometres, featuring diverse topography from the forested mountains of the north to the fertile central plains of the Chao Phraya River basin, and the tropical peninsular south. The highest peak, Doi Inthanon (2,565 metres), lies in Chiang Mai Province.
Borders: Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, MalaysiaCoastline: 3,219 kilometresClimate: Tropical monsoon with three main seasons—rainy (May–September), cool (November–March), and hot (April–May).Natural resources: Tin, rubber, natural gas, tungsten, timber, fish, gypsum, and arable land.
Land use (2022):

• Agricultural land: 46%
• Forests: 38.8%

Thailand faces significant environmental challenges, including air and water pollution, deforestation, soil erosion, and illegal wildlife trade. Urban areas, particularly Bangkok, suffer from water scarcity and pollution. The country is a signatory to the Paris Climate Agreement and several multilateral environmental accords aimed at promoting sustainable development.

People and society

As of 2024, Thailand’s population is approximately 69.9 million, concentrated mainly in Bangkok, the Chao Phraya Delta, and the northeastern plateau (Isan).
Ethnic composition: Thai (97.5%), Burmese (1.3%), others (1.1%).Languages: Thai (official, spoken by 90.7%); English widely taught as a second language.Religion: Buddhism (92.5%), Islam (5.4%), Christianity (1.2%).
Demographic indicators (2024):

• Urban population: 53.6%
• Life expectancy: 78.2 years
• Literacy rate: 91.1%
• Fertility rate: 1.54 children per woman
• Median age: 41.5 years
• Population aged 65+: 15.1%

Thailand is undergoing demographic ageing, posing challenges to the labour market and welfare system. Despite this, social indicators—such as health care, education, and infrastructure—remain strong compared with regional peers.

Government and politics

Thailand is a constitutional monarchy, with the monarch as head of state and the prime minister as head of government. The monarchy, deeply revered, symbolises national unity and continuity.

• Monarch: King Vajiralongkorn (Rama X), reigning since 2016.
• Prime Minister: Anutin Charnvirakul (since September 2025).

The political system comprises a bicameral National Assembly (Rathhasapha), including the House of Representatives (500 members) elected by popular vote and the Senate (200 members), partly selected through professional and sectoral representation under the 2024 reforms.
The judiciary is independent, headed by the Supreme Court of Justice, the Constitutional Court, and the Supreme Administrative Court.
Major political parties (2025):

• Pheu Thai Party (PTP)
• Bhumjaithai Party (BJT)
• Palang Pracharath Party (PPRP)
• United Thai Nation Party (UTN)
• Democrat Party (DP)
• Thai Sang Thai Party

The Move Forward Party (MFP), a reformist successor to the dissolved Future Forward Party, was itself dissolved in August 2024, reflecting the ongoing volatility of Thailand’s party system. The 2017 Constitution, drafted under military oversight, remains in force, though democratic reforms continue to be debated.

Economy

Thailand is an upper-middle-income country and one of Southeast Asia’s most industrialised economies. Its export-oriented model integrates manufacturing, agriculture, tourism, and services.
Economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $1.56 trillion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $21,700
• Growth rate: 2.5%
• Inflation: 1.4%
• Unemployment: 0.7%
• Public debt: 61.1% of GDP

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 8.7%
• Industry: 32.1%
• Services: 59.2%

Main exports: Machinery, integrated circuits, automobiles, broadcasting equipment, sugar, rice, and rubber.Top trading partners: United States (18%), China (13%), Japan (7%), Australia (4%), Singapore (4%).
Thailand’s foreign reserves total $236.9 billion (2024), ranking it 16th globally. The government’s long-term “Thailand 4.0” strategy promotes technological innovation, digital transformation, and sustainable industries to reduce dependence on low-cost labour and natural resources.

Energy and infrastructure

Thailand enjoys nearly universal electrification (99.9%) and serves as a regional hub for logistics and energy trade.
Installed capacity (2023): 55.97 million kWEnergy mix:

• Fossil fuels: 81.9%
• Biomass: 10.1%
• Hydropower: 3.5%
• Solar/Wind: 4.5%

The country produces 29.6 billion cubic metres of natural gas annually and consumes about 1.4 million barrels of oil per day. Transportation infrastructure includes 105 airports, 4,127 km of railways, and 21 major ports, such as Laem Chabang, Bangkok, and Phuket. Mobile and internet penetration exceed 90%, reflecting strong digital connectivity.

Defence and security

The Royal Thai Armed Forces (RTARF) comprise the Army, Navy (including Marines), and Air Force, totalling around 350,000 active personnel.

• Military expenditure: 1.1% of GDP (2024)
• Service: Compulsory for men (lottery system); voluntary for women.
• Primary missions: Defence of the monarchy, territorial integrity, counter-insurgency, and disaster relief.

Thailand has contributed to international peacekeeping, including UNMISS (South Sudan) with about 280 personnel. Since 2004, the military has confronted a Malay-Muslim insurgency in the southern provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat, led by the Barisan Revolusi Nasional (BRN). In July 2025, border skirmishes with Cambodia re-emerged along disputed areas, underlining persistent regional sensitivities.

Culture and national identity

Thai culture reflects a harmonious blend of Theravada Buddhist values, royal traditions, and community-oriented customs. Social life emphasises respect (kreng jai), hierarchy, and collective harmony.
The national flag consists of red (nation), white (religion), and blue (monarchy), symbolising the unity of the Thai state. National symbols include the Garuda (royal emblem) and the elephant, associated with strength and prosperity. The national anthem, “Phleng Chat Thai”, was adopted in 1939, while the royal anthem, “Phleng Sanlasoen Phra Barami”, honours the monarchy.