Succession of Mahmud of Ghazni

The succession of Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 998–1030 CE), the most powerful ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, was marked by intense dynastic rivalry, political intrigue, and instability within the royal family. After his death in 1030 CE, the empire he had built through conquest and centralised administration faced internal conflict over succession, which ultimately weakened Ghaznavid power in the long run.

Background: Mahmud’s Rule and Empire

Mahmud of Ghazni, the son of Sabuktigin, ruled the Ghaznavid Empire from 998 to 1030 CE. Under his reign, the empire expanded from eastern Iran and Central Asia to north-western India, becoming one of the most powerful Islamic kingdoms of its time.

• Mahmud was renowned for his military campaigns into India (17 in total), his patronage of scholars such as Al-Biruni and Firdawsi, and his establishment of Ghazni (in modern Afghanistan) as a centre of art, learning, and commerce.
• However, despite his military success, Mahmud failed to establish a stable system of succession, leaving his empire vulnerable after his death.

The Question of Succession

Towards the end of his reign, Mahmud had two principal sons who were contenders for the throne:

1. Muhammad of Ghazni – The younger son, described as mild-mannered, pious, and scholarly.
2. Mas‘ud (Masud I) – The elder son, known for his military capability and ambition, but also for his assertiveness and occasional defiance.

Though Mas‘ud was the elder and a proven military commander, Mahmud favoured Muhammad, perhaps because of his calmer temperament and devotion to religion.

Events Following Mahmud’s Death

1. Death of Mahmud (1030 CE): Mahmud died in April 1030 CE in Ghazni, leaving the empire without a clear and uncontested successor.
2. Accession of Muhammad of Ghazni: Following Mahmud’s wishes, his younger son Muhammad ascended the throne.

• Muhammad took the title Abu Ahmad Muhammad, but his reign began under difficult circumstances.
• The army and the nobility, who had served under Mas‘ud in various military campaigns, were dissatisfied with Muhammad’s appointment.

3. Revolt by Mas‘ud: Mas‘ud, who was stationed in Nishapur (in Khorasan) at the time of Mahmud’s death, refused to accept his brother’s rule.

• He gathered military support from Khorasan and other provinces.
• Within months, a civil war erupted between the two brothers.

4. Defeat and Deposition of Muhammad (1031 CE): Mas‘ud marched toward Ghazni with a strong army and captured the capital in 1031 CE.

• Muhammad was deposed, blinded, and imprisoned.
• Mas‘ud I ascended the throne as the Sultan of Ghazni in the same year.

Reign of Mas‘ud I (1031–1040 CE)

Once on the throne, Mas‘ud I sought to consolidate his rule and continue his father’s military legacy.
Achievements and Challenges:

• Fought against the Seljuk Turks in Central Asia to defend Ghaznavid territories in Khorasan.
• Strengthened his control over Punjab and northern India, maintaining Ghaznavid authority there.
• Shifted his capital temporarily from Ghazni to Lahore, emphasising the Indian frontier’s importance.

However, his reign was troubled by:

• Internal dissent among nobles and governors.
• Growing power of the Seljuks, who defeated him at the Battle of Dandanaqan (1040 CE) near Merv (modern Turkmenistan).
• This defeat led to the loss of Khorasan and marked the beginning of Ghaznavid decline in Central Asia.

End of Mas‘ud I’s Rule:

• After the defeat at Dandanaqan, Mas‘ud’s authority weakened.
• He was overthrown and killed by his own troops in 1040 CE, and his blinded brother Muhammad was briefly reinstated.
• Eventually, Mas‘ud’s son, Maudud (Mawdud I), succeeded in restoring order and became the next ruler (1041–1050 CE).

Summary of the Succession Crisis

Consequences of the Succession Conflict

1. Decline of Centralised Authority:
   • The civil war weakened the central government and diminished the prestige of the Ghaznavid throne.
2. Loss of Khorasan:
   • The Seljuks took advantage of Ghaznavid internal strife to seize Khorasan, the empire’s richest province.
3. Shift of Power to India:
   • With losses in Central Asia, the Ghaznavids increasingly focused on Punjab and northern India, making Lahore a major administrative centre.
4. Beginning of Ghaznavid Decline:
   • The empire that Mahmud built on military expansion and wealth from Indian campaigns gradually disintegrated due to internal divisions and external invasions.
5. Rise of the Seljuks:
   • The weakening of Ghazni enabled the Seljuks to establish themselves as the dominant power in the Islamic world.