Spain

Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain, is a sovereign state in southwestern Europe, occupying most of the Iberian Peninsula alongside Portugal. Bordered by France, Andorra, Portugal, and Gibraltar, and sharing maritime boundaries with Morocco, Spain combines a rich historical legacy with modern democratic governance. As a parliamentary constitutional monarchy and a major European economy, Spain exerts significant influence across Europe, Latin America, and the broader global arena.

Historical Background

The history of Spain extends from prehistoric Iberian and Celtic settlements through Roman, Visigothic, and Moorish periods to the rise of a unified Christian kingdom. Following centuries of Islamic rule (711–1492), the Christian Reconquista culminated with the fall of Granada in 1492, coinciding with the marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, which unified the Spanish Crown.
That same year, Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the Americas under Spanish patronage inaugurated the Spanish Empire, which became one of the largest and most powerful in history. Spanning Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia, the empire drew immense wealth from colonial trade, silver mining, and maritime dominance. Spain’s “Golden Age” produced enduring cultural achievements, including the works of Cervantes, Velázquez, and El Greco.
By the late 17th century, however, imperial power began to wane due to military overreach, economic stagnation, and competition from Britain and France. The War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), the Napoleonic invasion (1808–1814), and successive independence movements in Latin America weakened Spain further.
The 20th century brought deep political turmoil. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) pitted republicans against nationalists led by General Francisco Franco, whose victory established a dictatorship lasting until 1975. Upon Franco’s death, King Juan Carlos I oversaw Spain’s peaceful transition to democracy, enshrined in the 1978 Constitution, which restored civil liberties, political pluralism, and regional autonomy.
Spain joined the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1986, later becoming a key member of the European Union and the Eurozone. Its post-Franco modernisation transformed it into one of the world’s leading economies, while its cultural and diplomatic outreach reinforced global influence, particularly in the Spanish-speaking world.

Geography and Environment

Spain covers 505,370 square kilometres, making it Europe’s fourth-largest country. Its terrain is dominated by the Meseta Central, a vast interior plateau encircled by mountain ranges, and the Pyrenees in the north form a natural border with France. The Sierra Nevada, Cantabrian Mountains, and Iberian System add to its rugged relief, while fertile river valleys such as the Ebro, Guadalquivir, and Tagus support agriculture.
The Canary Islands (Atlantic Ocean) and Balearic Islands (Mediterranean) are integral parts of the kingdom, contributing to its maritime and ecological diversity. The highest point, Pico de Teide (3,718 m) on Tenerife, is an active volcano and Spain’s most elevated summit.
The climate varies from Mediterranean on the coast to continental inland and oceanic in the north. The country’s natural resources include coal, iron ore, copper, zinc, uranium, and hydropower potential. Forests cover 37% of the land, and environmental challenges include air pollution, desertification, and water scarcity in southern regions. Spain actively participates in international climate initiatives, including the Paris Agreement and EU Green Deal policies.

People and Society

Spain’s population was estimated at 47.28 million (2024), with a median age of 46.8 years, reflecting one of Europe’s oldest demographic profiles. The population is largely ethnically Spanish (84.8%), with notable minorities of Moroccan, Romanian, and Latin American origin.
Spain recognises four co-official languages: Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician, and Basque, each representing distinct cultural regions. Roman Catholicism (58.2%) remains the dominant religion, though secularism has expanded sharply; over 30% of Spaniards identify as non-religious.
Life expectancy averages 83 years, among the highest globally, supported by a comprehensive public healthcare system that consumes over 10% of GDP. Literacy is nearly 100%, and education is compulsory until age 16, with a school life expectancy of 18 years. Universities in Madrid, Barcelona, and Salamanca enjoy international recognition.

Government and Political Structure

Spain is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy established under the 1978 Constitution, guaranteeing democracy, rule of law, and regional autonomy. The King, currently Felipe VI, serves as head of state, symbolising national unity and continuity.
The executive branch is headed by the President of the Government (Prime Minister)—since 2018, Pedro Sánchez Pérez-Castejón—who leads the Council of Ministers. Legislative power resides in the Cortes Generales, a bicameral parliament composed of the Congress of Deputies and the Senate.
Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities (Ceuta and Melilla), each with its own parliament and government. This decentralised structure grants significant authority over education, health, and policing, reflecting Spain’s regional pluralism. Tensions periodically arise over Catalonia and the Basque Country, where independence movements remain politically significant.

Economy

Spain has a high-income, diversified economy, ranking as the fourth largest in the eurozone. In 2024, GDP (PPP) reached $2.36 trillion, with per capita income of $48,400. The services sector (69%) dominates economic output, followed by industry (19.5%) and agriculture (2.5%).
Key industries include automobile manufacturing, machinery, shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. Agricultural production focuses on olives, grapes, citrus fruits, pork, and wheat. Spain remains a global leader in olive oil, wine, and vehicle exports.
Tourism is a cornerstone of the economy, contributing around 12% of GDP and employing millions. In 2023, Spain was among the world’s top three most visited countries, attracting over 80 million international tourists.
Economic challenges persist, including unemployment (11.4%), especially among youth, and public debt exceeding 100% of GDP. Inflation has moderated following energy shocks, while EU recovery funds support digitalisation and green transition initiatives.
Main trade partners include France, Germany, Portugal, Italy, and the United Kingdom. Exports feature cars, pharmaceuticals, and machinery, while imports are led by energy products and manufactured goods. Spain uses the euro (€) and adheres to EU fiscal and monetary frameworks.

Energy and Infrastructure

Spain’s energy system is among the most diversified in Europe. In 2023, renewables accounted for nearly 52% of installed electricity capacity—wind (23.6%), solar (17.3%), and hydropower (11%)—while nuclear power provided about 20% of total generation. The country has largely phased out domestic coal, advancing toward carbon neutrality by 2050.
Infrastructure is modern and expansive: Spain operates Europe’s largest high-speed rail network (AVE), 365 airports, and 52 seaports, including major hubs at Barcelona, Valencia, and Bilbao. Internet penetration exceeds 95%, and urban transport systems are technologically advanced and widely accessible.

Defence and Security

Spain’s Armed Forces comprise the Army, Navy, and Air and Space Force, supported by the Civil Guard and National Police. Defence spending reached 1.4% of GDP (2024), reflecting commitments to NATO, the European Union, and UN peacekeeping missions.
Spain participates in multinational operations in Lebanon, Mali, and the Baltic states, and hosts NATO facilities such as Rota Naval Base. The Emergency Response Unit provides humanitarian assistance during natural disasters. The Spanish Navy and Marine Corps, among the world’s oldest, maintain a proud maritime tradition dating to the 16th century.

Space and Science

The Spanish Space Agency (Agencia Espacial Española, AEE), established in 2023, coordinates national space policy within the European Space Agency (ESA) framework. Its key activities include satellite development, space science, and launch vehicle research. The El Arenosillo Test Centre (Andalusia) serves as the national launch site, while Madrid’s European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC) hosts major ESA missions. Spain contributes actively to EU space and defence research programmes.

Culture and National Identity

Spain’s cultural landscape embodies centuries of artistic, architectural, and literary achievement. The works of Cervantes, Velázquez, Goya, Picasso, and Gaudí illustrate its global artistic influence. The nation counts 50 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Alhambra, Sagrada Família, Burgos Cathedral, and the Camino de Santiago pilgrimage route.