Shah Jahan: War of Succession

The War of Succession following the illness of Emperor Shah Jahan in 1657 was one of the most decisive and dramatic episodes in Mughal history. It was not only a contest for the imperial throne among his sons but also a defining event that reshaped the future course of the Mughal Empire. The conflict culminated in the victory of Aurangzeb, who emerged as emperor after defeating his brothers and imprisoning his father.

Background

By the mid-seventeenth century, the Mughal Empire under Shah Jahan had reached the height of its splendour and prosperity. The empire extended from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Kashmir in the north, and from Kandahar in the west to Bengal in the east. Shah Jahan’s reign (1628–1658) was marked by administrative stability, flourishing trade, and monumental architecture, including the construction of the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort.
However, like his predecessors, Shah Jahan faced the challenge of succession, as the Mughal Empire did not follow a system of primogeniture (inheritance by the eldest son). Instead, all sons of the emperor were considered eligible for the throne, and succession disputes were often settled through war.

Causes of the War

The principal causes of the War of Succession were political, personal, and structural:

1. Absence of Law of Succession: Mughal succession was not hereditary in the strict sense; each prince had to fight to secure the throne. The strongest and most politically skilled claimant usually prevailed.
2. Illness of Shah Jahan (1657): In September 1657, Shah Jahan fell seriously ill in Agra. His prolonged illness led to rumours of his death, creating a power vacuum and prompting his sons to assert their claims.
3. Ambition and Rivalry Among the Princes: Shah Jahan had four surviving sons, each governing a large province and commanding significant military and financial resources. Their ambitions and mutual distrust turned political competition into open warfare.
4. Factionalism at Court: The Mughal nobility and military officers were divided into factions supporting different princes, based on regional loyalties, religious inclinations, and personal advantage.

The Contenders

The four main contenders for the Mughal throne were:

• Dara Shukoh: The eldest son and Shah Jahan’s favourite. He was liberal, scholarly, and inclined towards Sufi mysticism and interfaith dialogue. He represented the orthodox line of legitimate succession and had strong support from his father.
• Shah Shuja: The second son, who was the Subahdar (Governor) of Bengal. He was ambitious and declared himself emperor soon after hearing of his father’s illness.
• Aurangzeb (Alamgir): The third son, who governed the Deccan provinces. He was a shrewd, orthodox, and militarily capable leader with a strong religious and administrative sense.
• Murad Baksh: The youngest son, in charge of Gujarat, known for his bravery and impetuous nature.

Each prince sought to secure alliances and military strength to advance his claim.

Course of the War

The War of Succession (1657–1658) was fought in multiple stages across northern and central India.

• Initial Moves: After Shah Jahan’s illness, Shah Shuja declared himself emperor in Bengal. Dara Shukoh, acting on behalf of his father, mobilised forces from Delhi and Agra to assert control. Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh formed a tactical alliance, agreeing to share power if they succeeded.
• Battle of Dharmat (April 1658): Aurangzeb and Murad marched north from the Deccan and encountered Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar, who led Dara’s forces near Ujjain. Aurangzeb’s disciplined army defeated Jaswant Singh, opening the road to northern India.
• Battle of Samugarh (29 May 1658): This decisive battle took place near Agra, between Aurangzeb’s combined forces and Dara Shukoh’s imperial army. Dara’s troops were larger but poorly coordinated. Aurangzeb’s superior tactics, discipline, and use of artillery led to a crushing victory. Dara fled towards Delhi and then to Lahore, while Shah Jahan, recovered from illness, tried unsuccessfully to mediate.
• Imprisonment of Shah Jahan (July 1658): After entering Agra, Aurangzeb seized control of the imperial treasury and confined his father, Shah Jahan, in the Agra Fort, where he spent the remaining years of his life under house arrest.
• Conflict with Murad Baksh: Having achieved his purpose, Aurangzeb turned on his ally Murad Baksh. He deceitfully arrested Murad during a meeting and later had him executed in 1661 to eliminate a rival claimant.
• Battle of Khajwa (January 1659): Aurangzeb next faced Shah Shuja, who had declared himself emperor in Bengal. The battle took place near Allahabad, where Aurangzeb’s forces again secured victory. Shuja fled to Arakan (present-day Myanmar), where he was later assassinated.
• Pursuit and Death of Dara Shukoh: Dara attempted to regroup his forces in the north-west, but he was betrayed by local chieftains. In 1659, he was captured near Baluchistan, brought to Delhi, and executed on Aurangzeb’s orders for alleged heresy and rebellion.

By mid-1659, all rival claimants had been defeated or eliminated, and Aurangzeb Alamgir emerged as the uncontested ruler of the Mughal Empire.

Outcome and Consequences

The War of Succession fundamentally altered the political and cultural trajectory of the Mughal Empire.

• Victory of Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb ascended the throne as Alamgir I in July 1659. His triumph demonstrated his military acumen, strategic patience, and ruthlessness.
• Imprisonment of Shah Jahan: Shah Jahan spent his final eight years confined in the Agra Fort, where he died in 1666. Legend holds that he spent his last days gazing at the Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• Shift in Imperial Ideology: With Aurangzeb’s accession, Mughal policy shifted from the liberal and syncretic ideals of Akbar and Shah Jahan to a more orthodox Islamic orientation. Aurangzeb reinstated certain religious laws and reduced royal patronage of the arts.
• Weakening of the Nobility: The protracted war weakened the nobility and drained imperial finances. Many loyalists of the previous regime were dismissed or punished, leading to administrative instability.
• Decline of Cultural Tolerance: Dara Shukoh’s execution symbolised the end of a more inclusive phase in Mughal culture, marking a transition towards a more conservative and sectarian approach.

Significance

The War of Succession under Shah Jahan had long-lasting implications for Mughal India:

• It established Aurangzeb as the most powerful Mughal ruler, under whom the empire reached its greatest territorial extent.
• It also exposed the fragility of the Mughal succession system, where every transition risked civil war.
• The conflict drained imperial resources and created internal divisions that later contributed to the empire’s decline in the eighteenth century.