Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, occupying most of the Arabian Peninsula, is the birthplace of Islam and home to its two holiest cities, Mecca and Medina. The monarch’s title, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, symbolises both religious legitimacy and national unity. Modern Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd al-Rahman Al Saud (Ibn Saud), who unified the peninsula following decades of tribal conflict. Since its establishment, the House of Saud has ruled as an absolute monarchy, combining Islamic authority with vast hydrocarbon wealth, which underpins the country’s domestic development and international influence.
Historical Background
The formation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1932) marked the culmination of Ibn Saud’s thirty-year campaign to consolidate the Arabian Peninsula under Wahhabi-influenced governance. The discovery of oil in 1938 at Dammam revolutionised the economy, transforming Saudi Arabia from an arid tribal confederation into a global energy power.
Saudi Arabia’s strategic prominence became clear during the 1990–91 Gulf War, when it hosted coalition forces to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation, simultaneously sheltering the Kuwaiti royal family and thousands of civilians.
Under King Abdullah bin Abd al-Aziz (2005–2015), gradual reforms expanded women’s participation, enhanced education, encouraged foreign investment, and modestly diversified the economy. Municipal elections in 2005 and 2011 introduced limited electoral participation.
His successor, King Salman bin Abd al-Aziz (since 2015), has overseen far-reaching transformation under Vision 2030, directed by Crown Prince and Prime Minister Muhammad bin Salman (MBS). Reforms include lifting the driving ban on women, opening cinemas, and developing new cultural and entertainment industries. These initiatives, alongside large-scale investment projects such as NEOM and the Red Sea Project, reflect the kingdom’s strategic effort to modernise society and diversify its economy.
In foreign affairs, Saudi Arabia has pursued assertive regional leadership. It led the Arab coalition intervention in Yemen (2015), launched the Islamic Military Coalition to Fight Terrorism, and established Etidal, a global counter-extremism centre. In 2019, the United States redeployed troops to Saudi Arabia following attacks on oil infrastructure. Riyadh continues to balance domestic reform with regional security challenges, maintaining a leading role in OPEC, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), and the wider Islamic world.
Geography and Environment
Located in the Middle East, between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, Saudi Arabia covers 2,149,690 square kilometres, making it the largest country in the Arabian Peninsula and the 14th largest globally. It borders Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, with 4,272 km of land boundaries and 2,640 km of coastline.
The terrain is dominated by vast deserts, including the Rub‘ al Khali (Empty Quarter) and An Nafud, punctuated by the Asir Mountains and the As Sarawat Range, rising to 3,000 m. The country has no permanent rivers, relying instead on deep aquifers and desalination plants for water. The climate is hot and arid, with temperature extremes, scarce rainfall, and frequent sandstorms.
Natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, gold, and copper. While 80.8% of land is classed as agricultural—mainly pasture (79.1%)—only 1.6% is arable. Forest cover is minimal (0.5%).
Saudi Arabia faces environmental challenges such as desertification, groundwater depletion, air pollution, and oil-related coastal contamination. It is a signatory to major environmental agreements, including the Paris Climate Accord and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Carbon dioxide emissions totalled 656 million tonnes (2023), ranking 8th globally, while municipal waste reached 16.1 million tonnes (2024), with a recycling rate of 18.8%.
Population and Society
In 2024, Saudi Arabia’s population reached 36.5 million, with a median age of 32.4 years and an annual growth rate of 1.68%. Males outnumber females (20.7 million to 15.8 million), reflecting the substantial foreign workforce. Urbanisation is extensive—85% of the population lives in cities, notably Riyadh (7.7 million), Jeddah (4.9 million), Mecca (2.2 million), Medina (1.6 million), and Dammam (1.3 million).
Ethnically, Arabs comprise about 90% of citizens, with Afro-Asian minorities forming the remainder. Arabic is the official language, and Islam is the state religion, with Sunni Muslims constituting 85–90% and Shia Muslims about 10–12%. Other religions are present among expatriates but cannot be publicly practised.
Life expectancy stands at 77.2 years, infant mortality at 11.7 per 1,000 births, and maternal mortality at 7 per 100,000 live births. The kingdom spends 6% of GDP on health care, achieving near-universal access to clean water (98.6%) and sanitation (99.7%). Obesity affects about 35% of adults. Education expenditure equals 5.1% of GDP, resulting in 98% literacy and an average school life expectancy of 17 years.
Under Vision 2030, women’s education and employment have expanded dramatically, supported by policies promoting workforce inclusion and social mobility.
Government and Political Structure
Saudi Arabia functions as an absolute monarchy governed under the Basic Law of 1992, which designates the Qur’an and Sunnah as its constitution. The King serves as head of state, head of government, and supreme authority in political, religious, and judicial matters.
Since 2022, Crown Prince Muhammad bin Salman has concurrently held the office of Prime Minister, overseeing day-to-day administration through the Council of Ministers, composed of royal family members and senior technocrats.
The Shura Council (Majlis ash-Shura), an appointed advisory body of 151 members, reviews legislation and government policy; women now occupy nearly 20% of seats. The judiciary applies Islamic (sharia) law, supplemented by royal decrees and modern regulatory frameworks. The High Court (2009) sits atop a hierarchy of criminal, civil, commercial, and labour courts.
Political parties are banned, and the monarchy remains the central locus of authority. Municipal elections, open to all citizens aged 18 and above, are the only elective process, allowing both men and women to vote and stand for local office.
Administratively, the kingdom comprises 13 regions (manatiq), each governed by a royal appointee. The capital, Riyadh, located at 24°39′N, 46°42′E, embodies the kingdom’s rapid urban, economic, and cultural expansion.
Economy
Saudi Arabia possesses one of the world’s largest and most influential economies, ranking among the top 20 globally. In 2024, GDP (PPP) reached approximately $2.21 trillion, with real growth of 1.8% and per capita income around $62,700.
Oil and gas remain dominant, contributing 44.8% of GDP, though diversification under Vision 2030 has expanded services (47.2%) and non-oil industries. Inflation was 1.7% in 2024, among the lowest in the G20.
As a founding member of OPEC, Saudi Arabia holds 17% of global proven oil reserves and produces roughly 11.2 million barrels per day, exporting mainly to China (21%), India (12%), Japan (12%), and the United States (6%). Total exports in 2024 reached $361 billion, including crude and refined petroleum, chemicals, and plastics; imports totalled $317 billion, chiefly vehicles, pharmaceuticals, and machinery.
The Saudi riyal (SAR) remains pegged to the US dollar at 3.75, sustaining monetary stability. Foreign reserves exceed $463 billion, the seventh-largest globally.
The labour force totals 17.2 million, heavily reliant on expatriates. Unemployment has fallen to 3.9%, though youth unemployment (13.8%) remains a concern. Energy consumption ranks among the world’s highest per capita, prompting major investment in renewables, green hydrogen, and sustainable industry.
Energy and Infrastructure
Saudi Arabia’s power sector is almost fully electrified, with installed capacity of 119.6 GW (2023), primarily from fossil fuels (99.3%). The National Renewable Energy Program aims to achieve 50% renewable electricity generation by 2030 through large-scale solar and wind projects.
The transport network includes 90 airports, 69 heliports, and 5,410 km of railways, connecting Riyadh with Jeddah, Mecca, and Dammam. Ports such as Ras Tanura, Jeddah Islamic Port, and King Abdullah Port handle significant crude oil and container traffic.
Telecommunications are among the most advanced in the region, with 52.5 million mobile subscriptions and universal internet access. The .sa domain represents the kingdom’s digital presence.
Defence and Security
Saudi Arabia maintains one of the most powerful militaries in the Middle East, with defence spending at 7.1% of GDP (2024). The Armed Forces, under the Ministry of Defense, include the Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defence, and Strategic Missile Force. The Saudi National Guard (SANG) operates independently to safeguard the royal family and internal security.
Women have been eligible for military service since 2021, and the country continues to modernise its defence sector under Vision 2030. Saudi Arabia leads the Peninsula Shield Force within the GCC and maintains close strategic relations with the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Pakistan.
Space and Technological Development
The Saudi Space Agency (SSA), elevated to ministerial status in 2024, leads national space policy under the National Space Strategy. Saudi Arabia participates in Arabsat (since 1976) and collaborates with NASA, the European Space Agency, China, and the UAE. Current priorities include remote sensing, satellite manufacturing, and space research infrastructure, alongside environmental initiatives such as the North Riyadh and Salma UNESCO Geoparks (2025).
Culture and Heritage
Saudi culture integrates Islamic tradition, tribal heritage, and modern reform. The green flag bears the Shahada (Islamic declaration of faith) and a white sword, symbolising justice and divine guidance. The national emblem—two crossed swords beneath a palm tree—represents strength and prosperity.
The national anthem, “Aash Al Maleek” (“Long Live Our Beloved King”), adopted in 1984, embodies loyalty to the monarchy. Seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Hegra (Madā’in Ṣāliḥ), Dir‘iyah, and Historic Jeddah, preserve the kingdom’s rich historical landscape.