Romania

Romania, a sovereign state in southeastern Europe, occupies a strategic position at the crossroads of central, eastern Europe, and the Balkans, bordered by Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, Ukraine, and Moldova, with access to the Black Sea. It is a member of the European Union (EU), NATO, and, since 2024, part of the Schengen Area for air and sea travel. Romania combines deep historical traditions with modern European integration, standing today as one of the region’s fastest-developing economies.

Historical Background

Romania’s statehood traces its origins to the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, which emerged under Ottoman suzerainty but retained internal autonomy. Following the Treaty of Paris (1856), the two principalities united in 1859 under Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, forming the United Principalities of Romania. By 1862, the unified state adopted the name Romania, and full independence from the Ottoman Empire followed in 1877, recognised by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Romania was proclaimed a kingdom in 1881, with Carol I as its first monarch.
During World War I, Romania joined the Allied Powers, gaining Transylvania, Bukovina, and Bessarabia—a period often described as the creation of Greater Romania. However, the interwar years were marked by political instability and regional tensions. In World War II, Romania initially aligned with the Axis Powers under Ion Antonescu, contributing to the German campaign against the Soviet Union. After Soviet occupation in 1944, the country switched allegiance to the Allies, aiding in the final defeat of Nazi Germany.
The post-war period saw the abolition of the monarchy in 1947 and the proclamation of the People’s Republic of Romania, which fell under the Soviet sphere of influence. From 1965, Nicolae Ceaușescu ruled as a communist dictator, creating an oppressive regime marked by extensive surveillance and severe economic hardship. The Romanian Revolution of December 1989 ended his rule, resulting in his execution and the collapse of communism.
The 1990s brought a turbulent transition toward democracy and market economics. By the mid-2000s, Romania had stabilised politically and economically, joining NATO (2004) and the EU (2007). In 2024, it achieved partial accession to the Schengen Area, symbolising deeper integration with Western Europe.

Geography and Environment

Romania spans 238,391 square kilometres, ranking as Europe’s 12th-largest country. The landscape is highly varied: the Carpathian Mountains form a central arch surrounded by the Transylvanian Plateau, while fertile plains and lowlands extend toward the Danube River and Black Sea.
The Danube, Europe’s second-longest river, flows along much of Romania’s southern border before forming the Danube Delta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Europe’s largest wetland ecosystem. The Carpathians reach their highest elevation at Moldoveanu Peak (2,544 m). The climate is temperate continental, with cold winters, warm summers, and moderate rainfall.
Romania’s natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, coal, timber, and arable land. About 30% of its territory is forested, while 55% is used for agriculture. Key environmental challenges involve soil erosion, air pollution, and Danube Delta degradation. As an EU member, Romania adheres to stringent environmental and climate policies, participating in the Paris Agreement and Convention on Biological Diversity.

People and Society

Romania’s population in 2024 is approximately 18.1 million, reflecting a continuing decline caused by low birth rates and emigration. The median age of 45.5 years places it among Europe’s oldest populations, with significant implications for social policy and labour markets.
Ethnically, Romanians constitute about 89% of the population, with minorities including Hungarians (6%), Romani (3.4%), and smaller groups of Ukrainians, Germans, and others. Romanian, a Romance language descended from Latin, is the official language, and over 91% of citizens speak it as their first language.
Religion plays a central role in national identity. Approximately 85% of the population belongs to the Romanian Orthodox Church, while Roman Catholics, Reformed, and Pentecostal communities form smaller minorities.
Urbanisation stands at 54.7%, with major cities including Bucharest (1.77 million), Cluj-Napoca, Timișoara, Iași, and Constanța. The literacy rate is 99%, and school life expectancy averages 14 years. Public healthcare, funded by national insurance, constitutes 6.5% of GDP, with an average life expectancy of 76.9 years.
Emigration remains significant, with large Romanian communities in Italy, Spain, and Germany. Remittances continue to support domestic consumption, but the outflow of skilled workers presents demographic challenges.

Government and Political Structure

Romania is a semi-presidential republic under the 1991 Constitution, which enshrines separation of powers, multiparty democracy, and judicial independence.

• President: Nicușor Dan (since May 2025)
• Prime Minister: Ilie Bolojan (since June 2025)
• Legislature: Bicameral Parliament, composed of the Chamber of Deputies (331 seats) and the Senate (136 seats), elected for four-year terms through proportional representation.

The country is divided into 41 counties (județe) and Bucharest Municipality, each governed by elected county councils and mayors.
The legal system follows the civil law tradition, influenced by French and continental European jurisprudence. The High Court of Cassation and Justice serves as the supreme judicial authority, and the Constitutional Court ensures constitutional compliance.
Romania’s vibrant political landscape includes major parties such as the Social Democratic Party (PSD), National Liberal Party (PNL), Save Romania Union (USR), Alliance for the Union of Romanians (AUR), and the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR). The 2024 parliamentary elections produced a diverse coalition environment.
The national flag, featuring blue, yellow, and red vertical stripes, symbolises liberty, justice, and fraternity, while the national anthem, “Deșteaptă-te, române!” (“Awaken, Romanian!”), embodies the nation’s revolutionary spirit.

Economy

Romania is classified as a high-income, EU-member economy with a GDP (PPP) of approximately $774 billion (2024), ranking 35th globally. The economy is dominated by services (62.5%), industry (25%), and agriculture (3.3%).
Growth slowed to 0.8% in 2024, influenced by inflationary pressures and fiscal deficits, though EU cohesion funds, infrastructure investment, and consumer demand remain key drivers. Inflation, which peaked at 13.8% (2022), stabilised to 5.7% (2024).
Major industries include automobile manufacturing, machinery, metallurgy, chemicals, textiles, agriculture, and an expanding IT sector. Romania has become a regional technology hub, hosting major multinational corporations and start-ups in Cluj-Napoca and Bucharest.
Exports include vehicles, electrical equipment, metals, and grains, primarily destined for Germany, Italy, and France. Imports consist mainly of machinery, energy, and pharmaceuticals. The labour force totals 8.26 million, with unemployment at 5.4% and youth unemployment at 21%. Despite progress, 21% of Romanians live below the national poverty line, and regional disparities persist.
The national currency, the Romanian leu (RON), trades at approximately 4.6 RON per USD (2024). Adoption of the euro remains a long-term goal, conditional on fiscal discipline and inflation convergence.

Energy and Environment

Romania enjoys high energy self-sufficiency, producing oil, natural gas, and hydropower domestically. Two nuclear reactors at Cernavodă generate nearly 19% of electricity, while renewables—particularly hydroelectric (32%) and wind (13%)—continue to expand.
The country is a net energy exporter within the EU and contributes to European energy security through interconnections with Hungary, Bulgaria, and Moldova. Ongoing projects aim to modernise grid systems and increase solar capacity.
Environmental reforms align with EU directives on emissions, waste recycling, and water quality, though industrial pollution and deforestation remain areas of concern.

Defence and International Relations

The Romanian Armed Forces comprise approximately 70,000 active personnel, organised into Land, Air, and Naval Forces. Defence spending, at 2.3% of GDP (2025), meets NATO targets.
Romania’s strategic focus lies on Black Sea security, NATO deterrence, and cyber defence. The country hosts a NATO Multinational Division Headquarters (Southeast) and a French-led battlegroup, underlining its role on the alliance’s eastern frontier. Romanian contingents participate in peacekeeping operations across Kosovo, Bosnia, and Africa.
Diplomatic relations extend to over 180 countries, and Romania holds membership in the UN, OECD, Council of Europe, OSCE, and World Trade Organization.

Science, Space, and Technology

The Romanian Space Agency (ROSA), founded in 1991, is an active partner of the European Space Agency (ESA) since 2011. It coordinates national research in satellite development, telecommunications, and remote sensing. Over 50 research institutions and companies participate in EU-funded aerospace and innovation programmes, advancing Romania’s technological competitiveness.

Cultural and National Identity

Romania’s culture blends Latin, Orthodox, and Central European influences, reflecting its position at a cultural crossroads. The nation boasts 11 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Danube Delta, Churches of Moldavia, and Wooden Churches of Maramureș.
Its artistic and intellectual heritage includes figures such as Constantin Brâncuși, Mihai Eminescu, and George Enescu, whose works remain central to national identity. Folklore, traditional crafts, and vibrant festivals continue to define Romania’s cultural landscape.