Rakhigarhi

Rakhigarhi is one of the largest and most significant archaeological sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), located in the Hisar district of Haryana, India. Spanning an area of over 350 hectares, it represents one of the most extensive urban settlements of the Bronze Age in South Asia. Rakhigarhi has gained immense scholarly attention for its scale, antiquity, and the light it sheds on the early development of urbanism, craft specialisation, and cultural continuity in the Indian subcontinent.

Location and Discovery

Rakhigarhi is situated on the Ghaggar River, a palaeochannel often associated with the ancient Saraswati River mentioned in Vedic literature. The site comprises a cluster of seven mounds—designated RGR 1 to RGR 7—spread across the twin villages of Rakhi Khas and Rakhi Shahpur. It was first discovered in 1963 by archaeologists of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), and subsequent excavations have been carried out at various intervals by scholars including Amrendra Nath (1997–2000) and Dr. Vasant Shinde (2013–2016).
The location of Rakhigarhi within the Ghaggar–Hakra river system places it within a broader network of Harappan settlements extending across Haryana, Rajasthan, and Punjab, suggesting that this region was an important cultural and economic corridor of the Indus civilisation.

Extent and Urban Layout

Archaeological investigations have revealed that Rakhigarhi was a well-planned urban settlement, displaying all the characteristic features of a mature Harappan city. The site contains evidence of:

• Fortified walls built of mud-brick and baked bricks.
• Well-laid streets intersecting at right angles, indicating a grid-like city plan.
• Residential complexes with separate bathing areas and drainage systems.
• Granaries, storage facilities, and workshops for crafts such as bead-making, metallurgy, and pottery.

The settlement shows distinct zones—citadel, middle town, and lower town—suggesting social stratification similar to that observed at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Drainage channels and street alignments reveal an advanced understanding of urban engineering and civic planning.

Chronology and Phases of Occupation

Scientific studies, including radiocarbon dating and thermoluminescence tests, indicate that Rakhigarhi was occupied from around 5000 BCE to 1900 BCE, encompassing both the early and mature Harappan phases.

• Early Harappan phase (c. 5000–2600 BCE): characterised by pre-urban settlements, mud-brick architecture, handmade pottery, and early craft traditions.
• Mature Harappan phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE): marked by large-scale urbanisation, standardised weights and measures, script inscriptions, and elaborate drainage systems.

The longevity of occupation suggests Rakhigarhi was not only an urban hub but also a regional centre of cultural evolution, possibly contributing to the origins of the Indus civilisation itself.

Material Culture and Artifacts

Excavations have yielded a rich corpus of material remains, shedding light on the technological and artistic sophistication of the inhabitants. Notable discoveries include:

• Beads and ornaments made of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, lapis lazuli, and agate.
• Seals and sealings bearing Indus script motifs, used for trade and administration.
• Pottery decorated with geometric and animal designs, some inscribed with early forms of writing.
• Copper tools, arrowheads, and ornaments, demonstrating metallurgical skill.
• Terracotta figurines of humans and animals, reflecting religious and domestic life.
• Weights and measures conforming to the standard Harappan system.

A remarkable feature of Rakhigarhi is the presence of local ceramic traditions, indicating regional artistic variation within the broader Harappan cultural sphere.

Burials and Human Remains

One of the most important discoveries at Rakhigarhi is the Harappan burial site, which has provided valuable anthropological and genetic data. The excavations uncovered several well-preserved graves, often containing pottery, ornaments, and tools as grave goods.
DNA studies conducted on skeletal remains, led by Dr. Vasant Shinde in collaboration with South Korean and Indian institutions, revealed that the Rakhigarhi individuals belonged to a distinct indigenous genetic lineage, showing no evidence of large-scale migration from Central Asia. This finding supports the hypothesis of local development of the Indus civilisation from earlier Neolithic cultures of the subcontinent.
The burials also reflect a structured social order, with differentiated grave goods suggesting social hierarchy. The careful orientation and ritual deposition of bodies point to established funerary customs and beliefs in an afterlife.

Economy and Trade Networks

Rakhigarhi appears to have been a major economic and craft-production centre. The discovery of shell, faience, and bead-making workshops indicates specialised industries. The site’s location near the Ghaggar river facilitated trade and communication with other Harappan cities.
Evidence of standardised weights, seals, and imported materials suggests participation in long-distance trade networks extending to:

• Rajasthan and Gujarat, for raw materials such as copper and semi-precious stones.
• Baluchistan and Afghanistan, for lapis lazuli and tin.
• Possibly Mesopotamia, as indicated by Harappan artefacts found in the ancient cities of Ur and Sumer.

Agricultural implements, storage jars, and animal bones imply a mixed economy based on farming, herding, and trade. Crops such as wheat, barley, and lentils were cultivated, supported by irrigation from the river system.

Cultural and Religious Aspects

Artifacts from Rakhigarhi provide glimpses into the belief systems of the Harappan people. The presence of terracotta female figurines and phallic symbols suggests fertility cults and proto-Shakta worship. The use of fire altars and miniature offering pots indicate ritual practices possibly linked to household or community worship.
The artistic motifs on pottery and seals—such as bulls, fish, and peepal leaves—reflect symbolic continuity with later Indian religious traditions. While there is no definitive evidence of temples, the ritualistic layout of certain structures implies sacred spaces within the settlement.

Significance and Historical Importance

Rakhigarhi has transformed our understanding of the geographical core of the Indus Valley Civilisation. For decades, sites like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, located in present-day Pakistan, were considered the civilisation’s main centres. However, the vast size and antiquity of Rakhigarhi demonstrate that the Harappan heartland extended deep into eastern Punjab and Haryana, along the now-dry Saraswati–Ghaggar river basin.
Its discoveries have redefined the civilisation’s chronology and questioned the long-held view that it originated solely in the Indus river valley. Rakhigarhi instead points to a multicentric development, where several regional cultures evolved simultaneously into urban civilisations.

Preservation and Modern Challenges

Despite its archaeological importance, Rakhigarhi faces challenges of urban encroachment, erosion, and inadequate conservation. Parts of the site overlap with modern habitation, complicating excavation efforts. The ASI and Haryana Government have undertaken initiatives to protect the mounds, establish a site museum, and promote heritage tourism.
Recent efforts, including the Rakhigarhi Museum Project, aim to showcase excavated artefacts and reconstruct the lifestyle of its ancient inhabitants, offering educational and cultural insight into India’s prehistoric past.